Science, capitalism, and the rise of the “knowledge worker”: The changing structure of knowledge production in the United States

Theory and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 451-492

  Kleinman, Daniel Lee ^a   Vallas, Steven P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035538558     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1011815518959     Document Type: Article

References (257)

1. st Century Firm: Changing Corporation Organization in International Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
2. st Century Firm: Changing Corporation Organization in International Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
3. st Century Firm: Changing Corporation Organization in International Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
4. st Century Firm: Changing Corporation Organization in International Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
5. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
6. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
7. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
8. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
9. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
10. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
11. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," Academe, November-December (1983), 18a-23a; K. Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45 (1989): 28-34; S. Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," GeneWatch, September-December (1984): 3-5; D. L. Kleinman and J. R. Kloppenburg, "Biotechnology and University-Industry Relations: Policy Issues in Research and Ownership of Intellectual Property at a Land Grant University," Policy Studies Journal 17 (1988): 83-96; K. S. Louis and M. S. Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); D. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," The Nation, March 22 (1999): 11-18; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education 26 (1993): 287-312.
12. For a compelling critique of the "transition problematic" found in Marxist theory, research on modernization, and elsewhere see D. Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027.
13. K. Barker, "Contingent Work: Research Issues and the Lens of Moral Exclusion," in L. Tetrick and J. Barling, editors, Changing Employment Relations: Behavioral and Social Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1995); E. J. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," Journal of Higher Education 61 (1990): 241-277; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1997).
14. K. Barker, "Contingent Work: Research Issues and the Lens of Moral Exclusion," in L. Tetrick and J. Barling, editors, Changing Employment Relations: Behavioral and Social Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1995); E. J. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," Journal of Higher Education 61 (1990): 241-277; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1997).
15. K. Barker, "Contingent Work: Research Issues and the Lens of Moral Exclusion," in L. Tetrick and J. Barling, editors, Changing Employment Relations: Behavioral and Social Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1995); E. J. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," Journal of Higher Education 61 (1990): 241-277; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1997).
16. S. Vallas and J. Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited: The Limits of Flexibility in American Manufacturing," Social Problems 43 (1996): 339 361; S. Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism: The Meaning of Workplace Flexibility," Sociological Theory 17 (1999): 68-101.
17. S. Vallas and J. Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited: The Limits of Flexibility in American Manufacturing," Social Problems 43 (1996): 339 361; S. Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism: The Meaning of Workplace Flexibility," Sociological Theory 17 (1999): 68-101.
18. F. A. Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions: The Many Faces of Time," in F. A. Dubinskas, editor, Making Time: Ethnographies of High-Technology Organizations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 3-38.
19. J. Owen-Smith and W.W. Powell, "Careers and Contradictions: Faculty Responses to the Transformation of Knowledge and its Uses in the Life Sciences," Research in the Sociology of Work 10 (2001).
20. D. Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); F. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); A.W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); S. Brint, In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
21. D. Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); F. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); A.W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); S. Brint, In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
22. D. Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); F. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); A.W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); S. Brint, In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
23. D. Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); F. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); A.W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); S. Brint, In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
24. st Century."
25. st Century."
26. st Century."
27. H. Etzkowitz and A. Webster, "Entrepreneurial Science: The Second Academic Revolution," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998), 21-46.
28. We should note here that although the term "knowledge worker" is commonly used to refer to all professionals, our central focus is narrower: credentialed university and industrial scientific and technical researchers. At the same time, it is impossible to understand the social situation of these workers in isolation. Their status is inextricably linked to other workers in industrial and academic settings, some credentialed and others not, and we consequently attempt to understand the knowledge workers we study in a relational context, always cognizant of the relationship between the status and practices of one group of workers with those of another.
29. Although there is a global trend toward university involvement in the world of commerce, we focus on the United States alone. For discussions of university-industry relations outside the U.S., see K. Balazs and G. A. Plonski, "Academy-Industry Relations in Middle-Income Countries: Eastern Europe and Ibero-America," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 151-168; M. Berry and L. Pipiia, "Academic-Industry Relations in Russia: The Road to the Market," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 169-186; M. Sheen, "Universities in Scotland and Organizational Innovation in the Commercialization of Knowledge," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 187-214; M. Gulbrandsen, "Universities and Industrial Competitive Advantage," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 121-131; M. Low, "Japan: From Technology to Science Policy," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Univeisities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 132-140.
30. Although there is a global trend toward university involvement in the world of commerce, we focus on the United States alone. For discussions of university-industry relations outside the U.S., see K. Balazs and G. A. Plonski, "Academy-Industry Relations in Middle-Income Countries: Eastern Europe and Ibero-America," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 151-168; M. Berry and L. Pipiia, "Academic-Industry Relations in Russia: The Road to the Market," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 169-186; M. Sheen, "Universities in Scotland and Organizational Innovation in the Commercialization of Knowledge," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 187-214; M. Gulbrandsen, "Universities and Industrial Competitive Advantage," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 121-131; M. Low, "Japan: From Technology to Science Policy," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Univeisities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 132-140.
31. Although there is a global trend toward university involvement in the world of commerce, we focus on the United States alone. For discussions of university-industry relations outside the U.S., see K. Balazs and G. A. Plonski, "Academy-Industry Relations in Middle-Income Countries: Eastern Europe and Ibero-America," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 151-168; M. Berry and L. Pipiia, "Academic-Industry Relations in Russia: The Road to the Market," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 169-186; M. Sheen, "Universities in Scotland and Organizational Innovation in the Commercialization of Knowledge," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 187-214; M. Gulbrandsen, "Universities and Industrial Competitive Advantage," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 121-131; M. Low, "Japan: From Technology to Science Policy," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Univeisities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 132-140.
32. Although there is a global trend toward university involvement in the world of commerce, we focus on the United States alone. For discussions of university-industry relations outside the U.S., see K. Balazs and G. A. Plonski, "Academy-Industry Relations in Middle-Income Countries: Eastern Europe and Ibero-America," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 151-168; M. Berry and L. Pipiia, "Academic-Industry Relations in Russia: The Road to the Market," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 169-186; M. Sheen, "Universities in Scotland and Organizational Innovation in the Commercialization of Knowledge," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 187-214; M. Gulbrandsen, "Universities and Industrial Competitive Advantage," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 121-131; M. Low, "Japan: From Technology to Science Policy," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Univeisities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 132-140.
33. Although there is a global trend toward university involvement in the world of commerce, we focus on the United States alone. For discussions of university-industry relations outside the U.S., see K. Balazs and G. A. Plonski, "Academy-Industry Relations in Middle-Income Countries: Eastern Europe and Ibero-America," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 151-168; M. Berry and L. Pipiia, "Academic-Industry Relations in Russia: The Road to the Market," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 169-186; M. Sheen, "Universities in Scotland and Organizational Innovation in the Commercialization of Knowledge," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 187-214; M. Gulbrandsen, "Universities and Industrial Competitive Advantage," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 121-131; M. Low, "Japan: From Technology to Science Policy," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Univeisities and the Global Knowledge Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 132-140.
34. H. Etzkowitz, "The Entrepreneurial University and the Emergence of Democratic Corporatism," H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Knowledge Economy (London: Pintor, 1997): 141-152.
35. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University 6, 7; Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," 17; S. Rothblatt, "The 'Place' of Knowledge in the American Academic Profession," Daedalus 126 (1997): 254.
36. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University 6, 7; Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," 17; S. Rothblatt, "The 'Place' of Knowledge in the American Academic Profession," Daedalus 126 (1997): 254.
37. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University 6, 7; Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," 17; S. Rothblatt, "The 'Place' of Knowledge in the American Academic Profession," Daedalus 126 (1997): 254.
38. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism 14; Y. S. Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," Research Policy 25 (1996): 843; H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," 259.
39. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism 14; Y. S. Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," Research Policy 25 (1996): 843; H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," 259.
40. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism 14; Y. S. Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," Research Policy 25 (1996): 843; H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," 259.
41. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism 14; Y. S. Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," Research Policy 25 (1996): 843; H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998); Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," 259.
42. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism 37.
43. Lee, "Technology Transfer," 850.
44. H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, "Introduction," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 10. See also Lee, "Technology Transfer," 849. It turns out that the financing of academic research is considerably more complicated than implied by scholars who suggest that there is a straightforward relationship between the decline in government support for academic research and an increase in industrial patronage. As one reviewer of this article points out, the logic of a government decline/ industrial increase argument suggests that, holding all else constant, one would expect that fields suffering the steepest decline in government support or at least the lowest rate of increase would also be the most likely to be commercialized. The data do not bear out this assumption. Thus, in the United States, federal funding for basic research during the years 1963-1999 increased most substantially for the life sciences (2,137%) and mathematics and computer sciences (1,868%), with the physical (718%) and social sciences (964%) seeing considerably smaller jumps. Thus, one cannot easily argue that increased pursuit of industrial support constitutes a simple response to declining federal funding. Of course, it may be that fields that saw the smallest increases in federal support did seek commercial patronage, but with less success than the life sciences. The whole question of where different research fields receive their support and why, what counts as a substantial decline in government funding, and how different fields react deserves much more attention than it has thus far received. For data on these matters, see the National Science Board's (NSB) annual Science and Engineering Indicators. (Note that in 1963 "mathematics" was a distinct funding category in the NSB basic science data and there was no category for funding of computer research. Note also that 1999 data are viewed as preliminary in the latest Science and Engineering Indicators.)
45. H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, "Introduction," in H. Etzkowitz, A. Webster, and P. Healey, editors, Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1998): 10. See also Lee, "Technology Transfer," 849. It turns out that the financing of academic research is considerably more complicated than implied by scholars who suggest that there is a straightforward relationship between the decline in government support for academic research and an increase in industrial patronage. As one reviewer of this article points out, the logic of a government decline/ industrial increase argument suggests that, holding all else constant, one would expect that fields suffering the steepest decline in government support or at least the lowest rate of increase would also be the most likely to be commercialized. The data do not bear out this assumption. Thus, in the United States, federal funding for basic research during the years 1963-1999 increased most substantially for the life sciences (2,137%) and mathematics and computer sciences (1,868%), with the physical (718%) and social sciences (964%) seeing considerably smaller jumps. Thus, one cannot easily argue that increased pursuit of industrial support constitutes a simple response to declining federal funding. Of course, it may be that fields that saw the smallest increases in federal support did seek commercial patronage, but with less success than the life sciences. The whole question of where different research fields receive their support and why, what counts as a substantial decline in government funding, and how different fields react deserves much more attention than it has thus far received. For data on these matters, see the National Science Board's (NSB) annual Science and Engineering Indicators. (Note that in 1963 "mathematics" was a distinct funding category in the NSB basic science data and there was no category for funding of computer research. Note also that 1999 data are viewed as preliminary in the latest Science and Engineering Indicators.)
46. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science," 251.
47. Etzkowitz and Webster, "Entrepreneurial Science: The Second Academic Revolution," 27.
48. D. Blumenthal, M. Gluck, K. S. Louis, and D. Wise, "Industrial Support of University Research in Biotechnology," Science 231 (1986): 242-246.
49. K. W. Arenson, "Columbia University Explores How to Profit from Educational Offerings on the Internet," The New York Times 3 April (1999): B3.
50. H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, "The Endless Transition: A 'Triple Helix' of University-Industry-Government Relations," Minerva 36 (1998): 204, 205; Etzkowitz, Webster, and Healey, "Introduction," 13; Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," 848; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science"; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science: Technology Transfer," Educational Policy 4 (1990): 341-361.
51. H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, "The Endless Transition: A 'Triple Helix' of University-Industry-Government Relations," Minerva 36 (1998): 204, 205; Etzkowitz, Webster, and Healey, "Introduction," 13; Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," 848; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science"; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science: Technology Transfer," Educational Policy 4 (1990): 341-361.
52. H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, "The Endless Transition: A 'Triple Helix' of University-Industry-Government Relations," Minerva 36 (1998): 204, 205; Etzkowitz, Webster, and Healey, "Introduction," 13; Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," 848; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science"; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science: Technology Transfer," Educational Policy 4 (1990): 341-361.
53. H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, "The Endless Transition: A 'Triple Helix' of University-Industry-Government Relations," Minerva 36 (1998): 204, 205; Etzkowitz, Webster, and Healey, "Introduction," 13; Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," 848; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science"; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science: Technology Transfer," Educational Policy 4 (1990): 341-361.
54. H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, "The Endless Transition: A 'Triple Helix' of University-Industry-Government Relations," Minerva 36 (1998): 204, 205; Etzkowitz, Webster, and Healey, "Introduction," 13; Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration," 848; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s: The Changing Organizational Culture of Academic Science"; S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science: Technology Transfer," Educational Policy 4 (1990): 341-361.
55. H. Etzkowitz, " Entrepreneurial Science in the Academy: A Case of the Transformation of Norms," Social Problems 36 (1989): 14-29; Etzkowitz, "The Entrepreneurial University and the Emergence of Democratic Corporatism," 145; Etzkowitz and Webster, "Entrepreneurial Science: The Second Academic Revolution," 38, 41.
56. H. Etzkowitz, " Entrepreneurial Science in the Academy: A Case of the Transformation of Norms," Social Problems 36 (1989): 14-29; Etzkowitz, "The Entrepreneurial University and the Emergence of Democratic Corporatism," 145; Etzkowitz and Webster, "Entrepreneurial Science: The Second Academic Revolution," 38, 41.
57. H. Etzkowitz, " Entrepreneurial Science in the Academy: A Case of the Transformation of Norms," Social Problems 36 (1989): 14-29; Etzkowitz, "The Entrepreneurial University and the Emergence of Democratic Corporatism," 145; Etzkowitz and Webster, "Entrepreneurial Science: The Second Academic Revolution," 38, 41.
58. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University.
59. M. Polanyi, "The Republic of Science," Minerva 1 (1962): 53.
60. Ibid., 53.
61. R. K. Merton, "The Normative Structure of Science," in R. K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973 [1942]), 267-278.
62. As the classical statement on the normative structure of science, Merton's position has been subject to sustained criticism. See, for example, I. Mitroff, The Subjective Side of Science (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1974); M. Mulkay, "Interpretation and the Use of Rules: The Case of the Norms of Science," Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences (1980): 111-125;
63. As the classical statement on the normative structure of science, Merton's position has been subject to sustained criticism. See, for example, I. Mitroff, The Subjective Side of Science (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1974); M. Mulkay, "Interpretation and the Use of Rules: The Case of the Norms of Science," Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences (1980): 111-125;
64. D. L. Klemman, "Pervasive Influence: Intellectual Property, Industrial History, and University Science," Science and Public Policy 25 (1998): 95-102.
65. R. D. Varrin and D. Kukich, "Guidelines for Industry-Sponsored Research at Universities," Science 227 (1985): 385. See also D. E. Stokes, Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1997): 80; A. B. Giamatti, "The University, Industry, and Cooperative Research," Science 218 (1982): 1278.
66. R. D. Varrin and D. Kukich, "Guidelines for Industry-Sponsored Research at Universities," Science 227 (1985): 385. See also D. E. Stokes, Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1997): 80; A. B. Giamatti, "The University, Industry, and Cooperative Research," Science 218 (1982): 1278.
67. R. D. Varrin and D. Kukich, "Guidelines for Industry-Sponsored Research at Universities," Science 227 (1985): 385. See also D. E. Stokes, Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1997): 80; A. B. Giamatti, "The University, Industry, and Cooperative Research," Science 218 (1982): 1278.
68. American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," 21a.
69. Ibid.
70. See also Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" 28; Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," 4.
71. See also Hart, "Is Academic Freedom Bad for Business?" 28; Krimsky, "Corporate Academic Ties in Biotechnology: A Report on Research in Progress," 4.
72. D. Blumenthal, M. Gluck, K. S. Louis, and D. Wise, "Industrial Support of University Research in Biotechnology"; Blumenthal, Gluck, Louis, A. Stoto, and Wise, "University-Industry Research Relations in Biotechnology: Implications for the University," Science 232 (1986): 1361-1366.
73. D. Blumenthal, M. Gluck, K. S. Louis, and D. Wise, "Industrial Support of University Research in Biotechnology"; Blumenthal, Gluck, Louis, A. Stoto, and Wise, "University-Industry Research Relations in Biotechnology: Implications for the University," Science 232 (1986): 1361-1366.
74. Ibid., 1364.
75. Ibid., 1364. For a follow-up to the Harvard Study, see J. Curry and M. Kenney, "Land Grant University-Industry Relations in Biotechnology: A Comparison with the Non-Land-Grant Research Universities," Rural Sociology 55 (1990): 44-57.
76. Ibid., 1364. For a follow-up to the Harvard Study, see J. Curry and M. Kenney, "Land Grant University-Industry Relations in Biotechnology: A Comparison with the Non-Land-Grant Research Universities," Rural Sociology 55 (1990): 44-57.
77. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," 12.
78. Ibid., 12. See also Louis and Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations"; and Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration."
79. Ibid., 12. See also Louis and Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations"; and Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration."
80. Ibid., 12. See also Louis and Anderson, "The Changing Context of Science and University-Industry Relations"; and Lee, "Technology Transfer and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration."
81. Shenk, "Money+Science=Ethics Problems on Campus," 12.
82. Obviously the following remarks cannot do justice to the history of scientific research in the American university. The literature here is vast. We confine our remarks to developments since World War I. For fuller and highly useful discussions, see especially R. L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities. 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and R. L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
83. Obviously the following remarks cannot do justice to the history of scientific research in the American university. The literature here is vast. We confine our remarks to developments since World War I. For fuller and highly useful discussions, see especially R. L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities. 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and R. L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
84. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge 45, 92.
85. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge 45, 92.
86. R. E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
87. nd Series, 7 (1992): 26-48; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge; S.W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); R. S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
88. nd Series, 7 (1992): 26-48; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge; S.W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); R. S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
89. nd Series, 7 (1992): 26-48; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge; S.W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); R. S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
90. nd Series, 7 (1992): 26-48; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge; S.W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); R. S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
91. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 48.
92. Ibid., 157. See also Geiger, "Science, Universities, and National Defense," 26, 27.
93. Ibid., 157. See also Geiger, "Science, Universities, and National Defense," 26, 27.
94. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 65.
95. Ibid., 66, 67.
96. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University; Leslie, The Cold War and American Science.
97. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University; Leslie, The Cold War and American Science.
98. Kleinman, "Pervasive Influence," 98.
99. E. Marshall, "Secretive Found Widespread in Life Sciences," Science 276 (1997): 525.
100. H. M. Collins and T. Pinch, The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
101. R. Goodell, "Public Involvement in the DNA Controversy: The Case of Cambridge, Massachusetts," Science, Technology, and Human Value 27 (1979): 38.
102. P. Brown and E. J. Mikkelsen, No Safe Place: Toxic Waste, Leukemia, and Community Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990): 126.
103. This is not to say that policymakers or citizens seeking expert counsel will not find some scientists fairer or more helpful than others, but independence from industry combined with academic employment does not assure disinterestedness. On the symbiotic relation between power and knowledge, see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: Birth of the Prison (N.Y.: Vintage, 1979), and his " Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (N.Y.: Pantheon, 1980).
104. This is not to say that policymakers or citizens seeking expert counsel will not find some scientists fairer or more helpful than others, but independence from industry combined with academic employment does not assure disinterestedness. On the symbiotic relation between power and knowledge, see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: Birth of the Prison (N.Y.: Vintage, 1979), and his " Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (N.Y.: Pantheon, 1980).
105. W. Kornhauser, Scientists in Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); S. Marcuson, The Scientist in American Industry (New York: Harper and Row, 1960).
106. W. Kornhauser, Scientists in Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); S. Marcuson, The Scientist in American Industry (New York: Harper and Row, 1960).
107. R. Reich, The Work of Nations (New York: Random House, 1992).
108. T. Stewart, Intellectual Capital: The New Wealth of Organizations (New York: Currency/ Doubleday, 1997); I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company (1995, New York: Oxford University Press).
109. T. Stewart, Intellectual Capital: The New Wealth of Organizations (New York: Currency/ Doubleday, 1997); I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company (1995, New York: Oxford University Press).
110. S. Albert and K. Bradley, Managing Knowledge: Experts, Agencies, and Organizations (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
111. Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr, "Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation"; Powell, Koput, Smith-Doerr, and Jason Owen-Smith, "Network Position and Firm Performance: Organizational Returns to Collaboration in the Biotechnology Industry," Research in the Sociology of Organizations (forthcoming); and Saxenian, Regional Advantage.
112. Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr, "Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation"; Powell, Koput, Smith-Doerr, and Jason Owen-Smith, "Network Position and Firm Performance: Organizational Returns to Collaboration in the Biotechnology Industry," Research in the Sociology of Organizations (forthcoming); and Saxenian, Regional Advantage.
113. Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr, "Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation"; Powell, Koput, Smith-Doerr, and Jason Owen-Smith, "Network Position and Firm Performance: Organizational Returns to Collaboration in the Biotechnology Industry," Research in the Sociology of Organizations (forthcoming); and Saxenian, Regional Advantage.
114. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
115. Saxenian, Regional Advantage; Saxenian, "Beyond Boundaries"; C.
116. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
117. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
118. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
119. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
120. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
121. st Century"; C. Goldberg, "Across the U.S., Universities are Fueling High Tech Booms," The New York Times 8 October (1999), A1.
122. Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism."
123. S. Barley, "Technicians in the Workplace: Ethnographic Evidence for Bringing Work into Organizations Studies," Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 404-441.
124. J. E. Orr, Talking About Machines: Ethnography of a Modern Job (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996); S. Barley and J. E. Orr, editors, Between Craft and Science (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
125. J. E. Orr, Talking About Machines: Ethnography of a Modern Job (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996); S. Barley and J. E. Orr, editors, Between Craft and Science (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
126. Eliot Freidson, "Professions and the Occupational Principle," in E. Freidson, editor, Professions and Their Prospects (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973), 19-37.
127. Barley ("Technicians in the Workplace") notes that managerial responses to technization are empirically quite variable, providing reason for caution when speaking of broad structural trends.
128. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
129. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
130. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
131. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
132. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
133. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
134. Jeffrey Pfeffer and James Baron, "Taking the Workers Back Out: Recent Trends in the Structuring of Employment," Research in Organizational Behavior 10 (1988): 257-303; Polly Callaghan and Heidi Hartmann, "Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment," Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute (1991); Bennett Harrison and Maryellen Kelley, "Outsourcing and the Search for "Flexibility,'" Work, Employment and Society 7/2 (1993): 213-235; Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic, 1994); Chris Tilly, "Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part Time Work," (Washington D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1990); Peter Cappelli, "Rethinking Employment," British Journal of Industrial Relations 33/4 (December, 1995): 563-602; Arne Kalleberg, Barbara Reskin, and Ken Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America: Standard and Non-Standard Employment Relations and Job Quality in the United States," American Sociological Review 65/2 (April, 2000): 256-278.
135. Pamela Tolbert, "Occupations, Organizations, and Boundaryless Careers," in M. B. Arthur and D. Rousseau, The Boundaryless Career; Albert and Bradley, Managing Knowledge.
136. Pamela Tolbert, "Occupations, Organizations, and Boundaryless Careers," in M. B. Arthur and D. Rousseau, The Boundaryless Career; Albert and Bradley, Managing Knowledge.
137. Saxenian, Regional Advantage.
138. Barley, "Technicians in the Workplace."
139. Orr, Talking About Machines.
140. Charles Derber, William A. Schwartz, and Yale Magrass, Power in the Highest Degree: Professionals, Capitalism, and the Rise of a New Mandarin Order (N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1990); C. Derber and W. A. Schwartz, "New Mandarins or New Proletariat? Professional Power at Work," Research in the Sociology of Organizations 8 (1991): 71-96.
141. Charles Derber, William A. Schwartz, and Yale Magrass, Power in the Highest Degree: Professionals, Capitalism, and the Rise of a New Mandarin Order (N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1990); C. Derber and W. A. Schwartz, "New Mandarins or New Proletariat? Professional Power at Work," Research in the Sociology of Organizations 8 (1991): 71-96.
142. See, for example, H. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); Jürgen Habermas, "Technology and Science as Ideology," in Toward a Rational Society, tran. by Jeremy Shapiro (Boston: Beacon).
143. See, for example, H. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964); Jürgen Habermas, "Technology and Science as Ideology," in Toward a Rational Society, tran. by Jeremy Shapiro (Boston: Beacon).
144. See, for example, Stanley Aronowitz and William DiFazio, The Jobless Future (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Jeremy Rifkin, The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era (N.Y.: Putnam, 1995).
145. See, for example, Stanley Aronowitz and William DiFazio, The Jobless Future (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Jeremy Rifkin, The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era (N.Y.: Putnam, 1995).
146. Derber and Schwartz, "New Mandarins or New Proletariat? Professional Power at Work," 71.
147. See Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Woik Revisited"; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism"; Steven Vallas, "Manufacturing Knowledge: Technology, Culture, and Social Inequality at Work," Social Science Computer Review 16/4 (Winter, 1998): 353-369; Harland Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making," American Sociological Review 59/5 (October, 1994): 723-745; and Eileen Appelbaum and Rosemary Batt, The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1994).
148. See Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Woik Revisited"; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism"; Steven Vallas, "Manufacturing Knowledge: Technology, Culture, and Social Inequality at Work," Social Science Computer Review 16/4 (Winter, 1998): 353-369; Harland Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making," American Sociological Review 59/5 (October, 1994): 723-745; and Eileen Appelbaum and Rosemary Batt, The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1994).
149. See Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Woik Revisited"; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism"; Steven Vallas, "Manufacturing Knowledge: Technology, Culture, and Social Inequality at Work," Social Science Computer Review 16/4 (Winter, 1998): 353-369; Harland Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making," American Sociological Review 59/5 (October, 1994): 723-745; and Eileen Appelbaum and Rosemary Batt, The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1994).
150. See Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Woik Revisited"; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism"; Steven Vallas, "Manufacturing Knowledge: Technology, Culture, and Social Inequality at Work," Social Science Computer Review 16/4 (Winter, 1998): 353-369; Harland Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making," American Sociological Review 59/5 (October, 1994): 723-745; and Eileen Appelbaum and Rosemary Batt, The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1994).
151. See Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Woik Revisited"; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism"; Steven Vallas, "Manufacturing Knowledge: Technology, Culture, and Social Inequality at Work," Social Science Computer Review 16/4 (Winter, 1998): 353-369; Harland Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making," American Sociological Review 59/5 (October, 1994): 723-745; and Eileen Appelbaum and Rosemary Batt, The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1994).
152. Aronowitz and DiFazio, Jobless Future.
153. Kathryn Marie Dudley, The End of the Line: Lost Jobs, New Lives in Post-Industrial America (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994).
154. Brint, In an Age of Experts.
155. Ibid., 10. See also B. Burris, Technocracy at Work (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). 80. Reich, The Work of Nations ; Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
156. Ibid., 10. See also B. Burris, Technocracy at Work (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). 80. Reich, The Work of Nations ; Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
157. Ibid., 10. See also B. Burris, Technocracy at Work (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). 80. Reich, The Work of Nations ; Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
158. Ibid., 10. See also B. Burris, Technocracy at Work (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). 80. Reich, The Work of Nations ; Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
159. Ibid., 10. See also B. Burris, Technocracy at Work (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). 80. Reich, The Work of Nations ; Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
160. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class.
161. P. J. DiMaggio and W. W. Powell, "The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields," American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 147-160.
162. Quoted in Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s," 257. One journalist quotes a Columbia University administrator as viewing his budget revenues as "venture capital to be spent both on academically promising projects and economically promising ones" (in K. W. Arenson, "Columbia Sets Pace in Profiting Off Research," The New York Times, 2 August 2000, B1).
163. Quoted in Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s," 257. One journalist quotes a Columbia University administrator as viewing his budget revenues as "venture capital to be spent both on academically promising projects and economically promising ones" (in K. W. Arenson, "Columbia Sets Pace in Profiting Off Research," The New York Times, 2 August 2000, B1).
164. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s," 257.
165. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism. 86. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s," 258.
166. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism. 86. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s," 258.
167. Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control"; Appelbaum and Batt, The New American Workplace; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism." A reviewer of this article suggested that private sector administrative practices were likely to be more widespread in non-Research One universities and that the commercialization of research was more likely to be found at elite research universities. Certainly, the limited data on the use of corporate administrative practices in higher education largely stem from outside the Research One context. But the data on the commercialization of research come from elite and non-elite research universities alike. Additionally, we have come across anecdotal evidence that private sector administrative techniques are found in major research universities as well as non-elite institutions. To say this is not to say that the spread of the codes and practices from the commercial world to higher education is smooth and even.
168. Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control"; Appelbaum and Batt, The New American Workplace; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism." A reviewer of this article suggested that private sector administrative practices were likely to be more widespread in non-Research One universities and that the commercialization of research was more likely to be found at elite research universities. Certainly, the limited data on the use of corporate administrative practices in higher education largely stem from outside the Research One context. But the data on the commercialization of research come from elite and non-elite research universities alike. Additionally, we have come across anecdotal evidence that private sector administrative techniques are found in major research universities as well as non-elite institutions. To say this is not to say that the spread of the codes and practices from the commercial world to higher education is smooth and even.
169. Prechel, "Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control"; Appelbaum and Batt, The New American Workplace; Vallas, "Rethinking Post-Fordism." A reviewer of this article suggested that private sector administrative practices were likely to be more widespread in non-Research One universities and that the commercialization of research was more likely to be found at elite research universities. Certainly, the limited data on the use of corporate administrative practices in higher education largely stem from outside the Research One context. But the data on the commercialization of research come from elite and non-elite research universities alike. Additionally, we have come across anecdotal evidence that private sector administrative techniques are found in major research universities as well as non-elite institutions. To say this is not to say that the spread of the codes and practices from the commercial world to higher education is smooth and even.
170. See, for example, H. Etzkowitz, "Knowledge as Property: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Debate over Academic Patent Policy," Minerva, (Summer, 1991): 412; L. S. Peters and H. Etzkowitz, "University-Industry Connections and Academic Values," Technology in Society, 12 (1991): 432; H. Etzkowitz and L. S. Peters, "Profiting from Knowledge: Organisational Innovations and the Evolution of Academic Norms," Minerva (Summer, 1991): 135; Slaughter and Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science," 341; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 255.
171. See, for example, H. Etzkowitz, "Knowledge as Property: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Debate over Academic Patent Policy," Minerva, (Summer, 1991): 412; L. S. Peters and H. Etzkowitz, "University-Industry Connections and Academic Values," Technology in Society, 12 (1991): 432; H. Etzkowitz and L. S. Peters, "Profiting from Knowledge: Organisational Innovations and the Evolution of Academic Norms," Minerva (Summer, 1991): 135; Slaughter and Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science," 341; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 255.
172. See, for example, H. Etzkowitz, "Knowledge as Property: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Debate over Academic Patent Policy," Minerva, (Summer, 1991): 412; L. S. Peters and H. Etzkowitz, "University-Industry Connections and Academic Values," Technology in Society, 12 (1991): 432; H. Etzkowitz and L. S. Peters, "Profiting from Knowledge: Organisational Innovations and the Evolution of Academic Norms," Minerva (Summer, 1991): 135; Slaughter and Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science," 341; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 255.
173. See, for example, H. Etzkowitz, "Knowledge as Property: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Debate over Academic Patent Policy," Minerva, (Summer, 1991): 412; L. S. Peters and H. Etzkowitz, "University-Industry Connections and Academic Values," Technology in Society, 12 (1991): 432; H. Etzkowitz and L. S. Peters, "Profiting from Knowledge: Organisational Innovations and the Evolution of Academic Norms," Minerva (Summer, 1991): 135; Slaughter and Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science," 341; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 255.
174. See, for example, H. Etzkowitz, "Knowledge as Property: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Debate over Academic Patent Policy," Minerva, (Summer, 1991): 412; L. S. Peters and H. Etzkowitz, "University-Industry Connections and Academic Values," Technology in Society, 12 (1991): 432; H. Etzkowitz and L. S. Peters, "Profiting from Knowledge: Organisational Innovations and the Evolution of Academic Norms," Minerva (Summer, 1991): 135; Slaughter and Rhoades, "Renorming the Social Relations of Academic Science," 341; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 255.
175. S. Slaughter and G. Rhoades, "Changes in Intellectual Property Statutes and Policies at a Public University: Revising the Terms of Professional Labor," Higher Education, 298.
176. A. Webster and K. Packer, "When Worlds Collide: Patents in Public Sector Research," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 47-59; American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," 21a; D. Blumenthal, S. Epstein, and J. Maxwell, "Commercializing University Research: Lessons from the Experience of the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation," The New England Journal of Medicine, 314 (1986): 1621-1626.
177. A. Webster and K. Packer, "When Worlds Collide: Patents in Public Sector Research," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 47-59; American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," 21a; D. Blumenthal, S. Epstein, and J. Maxwell, "Commercializing University Research: Lessons from the Experience of the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation," The New England Journal of Medicine, 314 (1986): 1621-1626.
178. A. Webster and K. Packer, "When Worlds Collide: Patents in Public Sector Research," in H. Etzkowitz and L. Leydesdorff, editors, Universities and the Global Economy: A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations (London: Pintor, 1997): 47-59; American Association of University Professors, "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Corporate Funding of Academic Research," 21a; D. Blumenthal, S. Epstein, and J. Maxwell, "Commercializing University Research: Lessons from the Experience of the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation," The New England Journal of Medicine, 314 (1986): 1621-1626.
179. Kleinman, "Pervasive Influence"; D. L. Kleinman, "Untangling Context: Understanding a University Laboratory in the Commercial World," Science, Technology, and Society 23 (1998): 285-314.
180. Kleinman, "Pervasive Influence"; D. L. Kleinman, "Untangling Context: Understanding a University Laboratory in the Commercial World," Science, Technology, and Society 23 (1998): 285-314.
181. Kleinman, "Pervasive Influence"; Webster and Packer, "When Worlds Collide."
182. Kleinman, "Pervasive Influence"; Webster and Packer, "When Worlds Collide."
183. P. Callaghan and H. Hartmann, Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute); Kalleberg, Reskin, and Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America."
184. P. Callaghan and H. Hartmann, Contingent Work: A Chart Book on Part-Time and Temporary Employment (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute); Kalleberg, Reskin, and Hudson, "Bad Jobs in America."
185. Cited in K. Barker, "Contingent Work: Research Issues and the Lens of Moral Exclusion," in L. Tetrick and J. Barlings, editors, Changing Employment Relations: Behavioral and Social Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association), 35. Excluding private junior colleges, public community colleges, and religious institutions still leaves approximately 25 percent of U.S. faculty holding part-time status.
186. Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s."
187. D. Ferber, "Getting to the Front of the Bus," Science 285 (1999): 1514-1517; K. Schmidt, "Will the Job Market Ever Get Better," Science 285 (1999): 1517-1519.
188. D. Ferber, "Getting to the Front of the Bus," Science 285 (1999): 1514-1517; K. Schmidt, "Will the Job Market Ever Get Better," Science 285 (1999): 1517-1519.
189. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism.
190. Ibid., 57.
191. Ibid., 59.
192. Brint, In an Age of Experts. An irony of this process and perhaps a factor in maintaining the legitimacy of higher education in the public's eyes is the existence of a star system in the otherwise marginalized humanities and social sciences. Here, a select few scholars demand high salaries and have high visibility.
193. J. W. Meyer and B. Rowan, "Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony." American Journal of Sociology, 83 (1977): 340-367.
194. Universities' adoption of commercial codes and practices may increase university legitimacy, but if pushed too far, adoption could have the opposite effect: if universities look too much like for-profit concerns, their status as mythic sites of purity and intellectual ferment will be jeopardized and waning public support could follow. In looking at the commercialization of the non-profit healthcare and social services sector, Estes and Alford (1990: 190) make a related point. They argue that "The contradiction is that in attempting to offset challenges to their legitimacy by adopting efficiency goals and acting more businesslike, nonprofits simultaneously contribute to their own de-legitimation as a unique sector deserving of the special privileges associated with giving, volunteering, and not-for-profit initiative."
195. Nonaka and Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company; Stewart, Intellectual Capital; T. Davenport, D.W. DeLong, M. C. Beers, "Successful Knowledge Management Projects," Sloan Management Review, (Winter, 1998): 43-57.
196. Nonaka and Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company; Stewart, Intellectual Capital; T. Davenport, D.W. DeLong, M. C. Beers, "Successful Knowledge Management Projects," Sloan Management Review, (Winter, 1998): 43-57.
197. Nonaka and Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company; Stewart, Intellectual Capital; T. Davenport, D.W. DeLong, M. C. Beers, "Successful Knowledge Management Projects," Sloan Management Review, (Winter, 1998): 43-57.
198. Dubinskas, Cultural Constructions, 180; P. Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences: Processes and Outcomes of Organizational Change (University of Arizona: Ph.D. Dissertation).
199. Dubinskas, Cultural Constructions, 180; P. Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences: Processes and Outcomes of Organizational Change (University of Arizona: Ph.D. Dissertation).
200. Dubinskas, Cultural Constructions, 180; P. Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences: Processes and Outcomes of Organizational Change (University of Arizona: Ph.D. Dissertation).
201. L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6. Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences"; Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions."
202. L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6. Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences"; Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions."
203. L. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6. Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences"; Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions."
204. Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 263.
205. Powell et al., "Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation," 141; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 263.
206. Powell et al., "Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation," 141; Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property in the Life Sciences," 263.
207. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6.
208. Rabinow, Making PCR, 25, 26.
209. P. Stephan, "The Economics of Science," Journal of Economic Literature 34 (1996): 1199-1235.
210. L. G. Zucker and M. R. Darby, "Star Scientists and Institutional Transformation: Patterns of Invention and Innovation in the Formation of the Biotechnology Industry," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93 (1996): 12709-12716.
211. See Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions."
212. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences.
213. Ibid., chapter 6.
214. st Century."
215. st Century."
216. M. Gibbons, M. Trow, H. Nowotony, S. Schwartzman, P. Scott, and C. Limonges, The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage).
217. Harley Frazis, Maury Gittleman, and Mary Joyce, "Correlates of Training: An Analysis using Both Employer and Employee Training Characteristics," Industrial & Labor Relations Review 53/3 (Apr 2000): 443-462. David Knoke and Arne Kalleberg, "Job Training in U.S. Organizations," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 537-546.
218. Harley Frazis, Maury Gittleman, and Mary Joyce, "Correlates of Training: An Analysis using Both Employer and Employee Training Characteristics," Industrial & Labor Relations Review 53/3 (Apr 2000): 443-462. David Knoke and Arne Kalleberg, "Job Training in U.S. Organizations," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 537-546.
219. L. Bassi, S. Cheny, and M. VanBuren, "Training Industry Trends, 1997," Training and Development (November, 1998).
220. Stewart, Intellectual Capital, 39.
221. Weld Royal, "A Factory's Crash Course in Economics Pays off," The New York Times, 25 April 2001, D7. Jori Finkel, "Students in the Showroom," Lingua Franca (April 2001), 8. See the influential management treatise by Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: Mastering The Five Practices of the Learning Organization (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990); cf. A. J. DiBella, "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective," Academy of Management Association Best Papers Proceedings (1995): 287-290; M. Easterby-Smith, "Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques," Human Relations 50 (1997): 1085-1113.
222. Weld Royal, "A Factory's Crash Course in Economics Pays off," The New York Times, 25 April 2001, D7. Jori Finkel, "Students in the Showroom," Lingua Franca (April 2001), 8. See the influential management treatise by Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: Mastering The Five Practices of the Learning Organization (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990); cf. A. J. DiBella, "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective," Academy of Management Association Best Papers Proceedings (1995): 287-290; M. Easterby-Smith, "Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques," Human Relations 50 (1997): 1085-1113.
223. Weld Royal, "A Factory's Crash Course in Economics Pays off," The New York Times, 25 April 2001, D7. Jori Finkel, "Students in the Showroom," Lingua Franca (April 2001), 8. See the influential management treatise by Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: Mastering The Five Practices of the Learning Organization (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990); cf. A. J. DiBella, "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective," Academy of Management Association Best Papers Proceedings (1995): 287-290; M. Easterby-Smith, "Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques," Human Relations 50 (1997): 1085-1113.
224. Weld Royal, "A Factory's Crash Course in Economics Pays off," The New York Times, 25 April 2001, D7. Jori Finkel, "Students in the Showroom," Lingua Franca (April 2001), 8. See the influential management treatise by Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: Mastering The Five Practices of the Learning Organization (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990); cf. A. J. DiBella, "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective," Academy of Management Association Best Papers Proceedings (1995): 287-290; M. Easterby-Smith, "Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques," Human Relations 50 (1997): 1085-1113.
225. Weld Royal, "A Factory's Crash Course in Economics Pays off," The New York Times, 25 April 2001, D7. Jori Finkel, "Students in the Showroom," Lingua Franca (April 2001), 8. See the influential management treatise by Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: Mastering The Five Practices of the Learning Organization (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990); cf. A. J. DiBella, "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective," Academy of Management Association Best Papers Proceedings (1995): 287-290; M. Easterby-Smith, "Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques," Human Relations 50 (1997): 1085-1113.
226. For example, Columbia University has been in the forefront of the commercialization movement in higher education, accumulating over $144 million in revenues from academically generated patents and licenses (Arenson, "Columbia Sets Pace in Profiting Off Research"). See also J. Gerth and S. G. Stolberg, "Medicine Merchants: Drug Makers Reap Profits on Tax-Backed Resarch," The New York Times, 23 April, 2000, 1. This revenue, which accounts for roughly eight percent of Columbia's annual budget, is not dispensed to university operations, but is reinvested in further revenue-generating ventures. Columbia has also spun off a for-profit company called Morningside Ventures, Inc., which markets the university's education offerings on the Internet (Arenson, "Columbia University Explores How to Profit from Educational Offerings on the Internet"). Arenson (ibid.) quotes one Columbia administrator as hoping that Morningside Ventures will "do for learning what Amazon.com has done for books."
227. Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited." As one reviewer pointed out, it is important to distinguish between "autonomy-from-the-worker's-perspective" (the subjective experience at work) and "autonomy-from-the-observer's-perspective" ("objectively" measurable autonomy). To some extent, these two dimensions operate independently of one another, with variations existing across disciplines that probably stem from differences in selection processes and socialization. Researchers in fields that screen out "divergent thinkers" are likely to perceive greater autonomy than will actors in fields that tolerate or encourage heterodox thought.
228. Dudley, End of the Line; Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited." As one reviewer pointed out, it is important to distinguish between "autonomy-from-the-worker's-perspective" (the subjective experience at work) and "autonomy-from-the-observer's-perspective" ("objectively" measurable autonomy). To some extent, these two dimensions operate independently of one another, with variations existing across disciplines that probably stem from differences in selection processes and socialization. Researchers in fields that screen out "divergent thinkers" are likely to perceive greater autonomy than will actors in fields that tolerate or encourage heterodox thought.
229. Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions."
230. Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences.
231. Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions," 205; Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6.
232. Dubinskas, "Cultural Constructions," 205; Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences, chapter 6.
233. Two reviewers of an earlier version of this manuscript wondered whether the trend toward use of bureaucratic mechanisms of performance management in the academy stems not from isomorphism between universities and their corporate partners, as we suggest, but from political pressures emanating from state legislatures. We think this is a good point. We believe that the involvement of state legislatures is part of a complex trend. Universities are in part "signalling" legislatures when they adopt bureaucratic mechanisms. But they are sending those signals in terms that are derived from the corporate world - as is particularly obvious when they use corporate practices such as Total Quality Management or other expressions of the quality movement. In short, public universities adopt the new practices with an eye toward their state capitols, but they do so in an idiom that is directly and indirectly borrowed from the corporate world. Clearly, further research is needed to trace the mechanisms that account for the diffusion of this idiom.
234. Although the convergent or reciprocal character of this process is overlooked by most analysts, Powell and Owen-Smith show an awareness of an ongoing institutional blurring. Their focus, formulation, and conclusions are, however, different from ours. First, their focus is restricted to the biological sciences, and we see the process of asymmetrical convergence as having effects that extend well beyond the biological sciences. Second, Powell and Owen-Snith are attentive primarily to the implications of convergence on the university. We, by contrast, focus on both the academic and industrial domains in an effort to understand the effects of asymmetrical convergence. Third, Powell and Owen-Smith emphasize the transformation of knowledge in the biological sciences in driving academic and commercial domains together. We, instead, stress the role of legitimacy and class-based factors in prompting the spread of norms and practices once distinct to particular domains across the boundary separating those domains. Powell and Owen-Smith, "Universities and the Market for Intellectual Property and the Life Sciences."
235. DiMaggio and Powell, "The Iron Cage Revisited"; Schneiberg and Clemens, "The Typical Tools for the Job: Research Strategies in Institutional Analysis," in W. W. Powell and D. L. Jones, editors, Bending the Bars of the Iron Cage, forthcoming.
236. DiMaggio and Powell, "The Iron Cage Revisited"; Schneiberg and Clemens, "The Typical Tools for the Job: Research Strategies in Institutional Analysis," in W. W. Powell and D. L. Jones, editors, Bending the Bars of the Iron Cage, forthcoming.
237. DiMaggio and Powell, "The Iron Cage Revisited"; Schneiberg and Clemens, "The Typical Tools for the Job: Research Strategies in Institutional Analysis," in W. W. Powell and D. L. Jones, editors, Bending the Bars of the Iron Cage, forthcoming.
238. Albert and Bradley, Managing Knowledge.
239. Reich, The Work of Nations; J. Bound and G. Johnson, "Changes in the Structure of Wage in the 1980s: An Evaluation of Alternative Explanations," American Economic Review 82 (1992): 371-392.
240. G. Colclough and C. M. Tolbert III, Work in the Fast Lane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992). J. McIlwee and G. Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Culture and Workplace Power (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). As we note repeatedly, the process of asymmetrical convergence is and will be uneven in its effects and rife with contradiction. In this context, one reviewer speculates that at the onset of this process women were, indeed, sorted into the "bad jobs" in industry. As the process of asymmetrical convergence has unfolded, however, occupational conditions have improved, raising the specter of the masculinization of industrial science: a process that would re-marginalize women in industrial research. On the character of gender relations and high tech research, see McIlwee and Robinson's work, and Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences.
241. G. Colclough and C. M. Tolbert III, Work in the Fast Lane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992). J. McIlwee and G. Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Culture and Workplace Power (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). As we note repeatedly, the process of asymmetrical convergence is and will be uneven in its effects and rife with contradiction. In this context, one reviewer speculates that at the onset of this process women were, indeed, sorted into the "bad jobs" in industry. As the process of asymmetrical convergence has unfolded, however, occupational conditions have improved, raising the specter of the masculinization of industrial science: a process that would re-marginalize women in industrial research. On the character of gender relations and high tech research, see McIlwee and Robinson's work, and Smith-Doerr, Career Paths in the Life Sciences.
242. G. Colclough and C. M. Tolbert III, Work in the Fast Lane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992). J. McIlwee and G. Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Culture and Workplace Power (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). As we note repeatedly, the process of asymmetrical convergence is and will be uneven in its effects and rife with contradiction. In this context, one reviewer speculates that at the onset of this process women were, indeed, sorted into the "bad jobs" in industry. As the process of asymmetrical convergence has unfolded, however, occupational conditions have improved, raising the specter of the
243. See, for example, Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s."
244. See, for example, Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism; Hackett, "Science as a Vocation in the 1990s."
245. DiMaggio and Powell, "The Iron Cage Revisited.
246. On methods for studying institutional processes, see Schneiberg and Clemens, "The Typical Tools for the Job."
247. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism.
248. Randall Collins, The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification (N.Y.: Academic Press,1979).
249. Donald Tomaskovic-Devey, Gender and Racial Inequality and Work (Ithaca: ILR, 1993); T. A. DiPrete, The Bureaucratic Labor Market: The Case of the Federal Civil Service (New York: Plenum, 1989).
250. Donald Tomaskovic-Devey, Gender and Racial Inequality and Work (Ithaca: ILR, 1993); T. A. DiPrete, The Bureaucratic Labor Market: The Case of the Federal Civil Service (New York: Plenum, 1989).
251. See, for example, Vallas and Beck, "The Transformation of Work Revisited."
252. See, for example, S. Epstein, Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
253. Slaughter and Leslie, Academic Capitalism.
254. See, for example, S. Schulman, Owning the Future (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999); Kleinman, "Untangling Context."
255. See, for example, S. Schulman, Owning the Future (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999); Kleinman, "Untangling Context."
256. P. Brown and E. J. Mikkelsen, No Safe Place: Toxic Waste, Leukemia, and Community Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); D. L. Kleinman, "Beyond the Science Wars: Contemplating the Democratization of Science," Politics and the Life Sciences 16 (1998); 133-145; D. L. Kleinman, editor, Science, Technology, and Democracy (Albany: SUNY Press, 2000).
257. P. Brown and E. J. Mikkelsen, No Safe Place: Toxic Waste, Leukemia, and Community Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); D. L. Kleinman, "Beyond the Science Wars: Contemplating the Democratization of Science," Politics and the Life Sciences 16 (1998); 133-145; D. L. Kleinman, editor, Science, Technology, and Democracy (Albany: SUNY Press, 2000).