Post-Soviet Central Asia and post-colonial Francophone Africa: Some associations

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 124-149

  Gammer, Moshe ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; GEOPOLITICS; POST-COLONIALISM; POST-COMMUNISM;

AFRICA; ASIA;

EID: 0034080296     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263200008701311     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Felix Hophuet-Boigny, 'Black Africa and the French Union', Foreign Affairs, Vol.35, No.6 (July 1957), p.597.
2. Leopold-Sedar Senghor, 'A Community of Free and Equal Peoples with the Mother Country', Western World (Brussels), No.18 (1958), pp.41-2.
3. Ahmed Rashid. The Resurgence of Central Asia, Islam or Nationalism? (Karachi and London, 1994), p.3. For the events leading to the independence of the Central Asian states, see Jonathan Grant, 'Decolonization by Default: Independence in Soviet Central Asia', Central Asian Survey (hereafter CAS), Vol.13, No.1 (1984), pp.51-8.
4. Ahmed Rashid. The Resurgence of Central Asia, Islam or Nationalism? (Karachi and London, 1994), p.3. For the events leading to the independence of the Central Asian states, see Jonathan Grant, 'Decolonization by Default: Independence in Soviet Central Asia', Central Asian Survey (hereafter CAS), Vol.13, No.1 (1984), pp.51-8.
5. Rashid, op. cit., pp.2-3.
6. Charles O. Chikeka, Britain, France and the New African States: A Study of Post Independence Relationships, 1960-1985 (Lewiston, NY, 1990), pp.13, 12 respectively.
7. Ibid., p.17.
8. For these rivalries, mainly between Hophuet-Boigny and Senghor, see Guy de Lousignan. French Speaking Africa since Independence (London, 1961), pp.59-75; Daniel Bech, 'Francophone Regionalism or Franco-African Regionalism?', in Anthony Kirk-Greene and Daniel Bech (eds.), State and Society in Francophone Africa since Independence (New York, 1995), pp.200-12.
9. For these rivalries, mainly between Hophuet-Boigny and Senghor, see Guy de Lousignan. French Speaking Africa since Independence (London, 1961), pp.59-75; Daniel Bech, 'Francophone Regionalism or Franco-African Regionalism?', in Anthony Kirk-Greene and Daniel Bech (eds.), State and Society in Francophone Africa since Independence (New York, 1995), pp.200-12.
10. Alexandre Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush. Muslims of the Soviet Empire, A Guide. (London, 1985), pp.33-4; cf. William Fierman, Language Planning and National Development (Berlin, 1991); Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia (Baltimore, 1970).
11. Alexandre Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush. Muslims of the Soviet Empire, A Guide. (London, 1985), pp.33-4; cf. William Fierman, Language Planning and National Development (Berlin, 1991); Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia (Baltimore, 1970).
12. Alexandre Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush. Muslims of the Soviet Empire, A Guide. (London, 1985), pp.33-4; cf. William Fierman, Language Planning and National Development (Berlin, 1991); Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia (Baltimore, 1970).
13. Barnett R. Rubin. 'The Fragmentation of Tajikistan' (unpublished manuscript), p.6 as quoted in Donald S. Carlisle, 'Geopolitics and Ethnic Problems of Uzbekistan and Its Neighbours', in Yaacov Ro'i (ed.). Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting Legacies (London, 1995), p.83.
14. Barnett R. Rubin. 'The Fragmentation of Tajikistan' (unpublished manuscript), p.6 as quoted in Donald S. Carlisle, 'Geopolitics and Ethnic Problems of Uzbekistan and Its Neighbours', in Yaacov Ro'i (ed.). Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting Legacies (London, 1995), p.83.
15. Bennigsen and Wimbush, op. cit., p.33.
16. Ibid., p.34. And cf. James Critchlow. Nationalism in Uzbekistan. A Soviet Republic's Road to Independence (Boulder, Co., 1992); Shahram Akbarzadeh, 'Nation-building in Uzbekistan', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.23-32.
17. Ibid., p.34. And cf. James Critchlow. Nationalism in Uzbekistan. A Soviet Republic's Road to Independence (Boulder, Co., 1992); Shahram Akbarzadeh, 'Nation-building in Uzbekistan', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.23-32.
18. Ibid., p.34. And cf. James Critchlow. Nationalism in Uzbekistan. A Soviet Republic's Road to Independence (Boulder, Co., 1992); Shahram Akbarzadeh, 'Nation-building in Uzbekistan', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.23-32.
19. Rubin, p.6 as quoted by Carlisle, op. cit., p.83.
20. Rubin, p.6 as quoted by Carlisle, op. cit., p.83.
21. See for example, Donald S. Carlisle, 'Uzbekistan and the Uzbeks', Problems of Communism (September-October 1991), pp.23-44; Demian Vaisman, 'Regionalism and Clan Loyalty in the Political Life of Uzbekistan', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.105-22; cf. Karimov, pp.59-66.
22. See for example, Donald S. Carlisle, 'Uzbekistan and the Uzbeks', Problems of Communism (September-October 1991), pp.23-44; Demian Vaisman, 'Regionalism and Clan Loyalty in the Political Life of Uzbekistan', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.105-22; cf. Karimov, pp.59-66.
23. See for example, Donald S. Carlisle, 'Uzbekistan and the Uzbeks', Problems of Communism (September-October 1991), pp.23-44; Demian Vaisman, 'Regionalism and Clan Loyalty in the Political Life of Uzbekistan', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.105-22; cf. Karimov, pp.59-66.
24. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
25. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
26. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
27. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
28. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
29. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
30. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
31. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
32. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
33. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
34. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
35. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
36. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
37. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
38. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
39. According to Iurii Kubishchanov, 'Region zemletriasenii v tsentre mira: Etnicheskie problemy novykh nezavisimykh gosudarstv Srednei Azii', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 August 1994, the major cause for the failure of Tajik nation building has been the fact that only the peripheral parts of the Tajik nation were included in Tajikistan, while its centre - Bukhara and Samarkand - became part of Uzbekistan. For the process of Soviet nation building in Tajikistan, see Rakowska-Harmstone, op.cit.; Guissou Jahangiri, 'The Premises of the Construction of a Tajik National Identity', in Mohammad-Reza Djalili, Frederic Grare and Shirin Akiner (eds.), Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence (London, 1998), pp.14-41. For the developments in that country since the dissolution of the USSR and the civil war there, see Stephane A. Dudoignon, 'Political Parties and Forces in Tajikistan, 1989-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.52-85; Bess A. Brown, 'The Civil War in Tajikistan, 1992-1993', in ibid., pp.86-96; Michael Orr, 'The Russian Army and the War in Tajikistan', in ibid., pp.151-60; Irina Zviagelskaya, 'The Tajik Conflict: Problems of Regulation', in ibid., pp.161-79; V.I. Bushkov and D.V. Mikul'skii, Anatomiia grazhdanskoi voiny v Tadzhikistane. (Etno-sotsial'nye protsesy i politicheskaia bor'ba, 1992-1997), 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1997), pp.44-52; Mehrad Haghayehgi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York, 1996), pp.142-51; Muriel Atkin, 'Tajiks and the Persian World', in Beatrice F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective (Boulder, CO, 1994), pp.127-43; Allen Hetmanek, 'Islamic Revolution and Jihad Come to the Former Soviet Central Asia: The Case of Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.12, No.3 (1993), pp.363-78; Sharbanou Tadjbakhsh, 'National Reconciliation: The Imperfect Whim', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.325-48; Grigorii G. Kosach, 'Tajikistan: Political Parties in an Inchoate National Space', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.123-42; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74. For the UN involvement, see The UN, Department of Public Information. The United Nations and the Situation in Tajikistan, Reference Paper (New York, 1995); Olivier A.J. Brenninkmeijer, 'International Concerns for Tajikistan: UN and OSCE Efforts to Promote Peace-Building and Democratisation', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.180-215.
40. See for example, N.P. Komarskaia and S.A. Panarin (eds.), Etnosotsial'nye protsessy v Kyrgyzstane (Moscow, 1994).
41. Thus by 1989 about 81% of all the Kazakhs living in the USSR were living in their titular republics, c. 89% of the Kyrgyz, c. 76% of the Tajiks, c. 94% of the Turkmens and c. 85 % of the Uzbeks. They formed the following part of the population in their republics respectively: Kazakhs-39.7%, Kyrgyz-52.4%, Tajiks-62.3%, Turkmens-72% and Uzbeks-71.4%.
42. Karimov, op. cit., pp.41-50; cf. Semen Gitlin. Natsional'nye otnosheniia v Uzbekistane. Iliuzii i real'nost' (Tel Aviv, 1998).
43. Karimov, op. cit., pp.41-50; cf. Semen Gitlin. Natsional'nye otnosheniia v Uzbekistane. Iliuzii i real'nost' (Tel Aviv, 1998).
44. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
45. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
46. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
47. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
48. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
49. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
50. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
51. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
52. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
53. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
54. Thus, in 1989 the Russophones formed at lest 50.7% of the population in Kazakhstan, 26.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 9.5% in Tajikistan and Turkmenistan each and 10.2% in Uzbekistan. For national and ethnic problems see A.M. Khazanov, 'Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.144-63; Edward Allworth, 'Commersants or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Others in Central Asia', in ibid., pp.185-201; Edan Naby, 'The Emergence of Central Asia: Ethnic and Religious Factions', in Mohiaddin Mesbahi (ed.), Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Soviet Union. Domestic and International Dimensions (Gainsville, 1998), pp.34-55 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.131-68); Leonid A. Fridman, 'Economic Crisis as a Factor of Building-Up Socio-Political and Ethnonational Tensions in the Countries of Central Asia and Transcaucasia', in Vitaly Naumkin (ed.), Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Ethnicity and Conflict (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.31-61; Yalman Onarcan, 'Economics and Nationalism: The Case of Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Michael Paul Sacks, 'Roots of Diversity and Conflict: Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Work Force of the Former Republics of Soviet Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.269-87; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.14, No.2 (1995), pp.243-63; Jiger Ganabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.15, No.1 (March 1996), pp.5-22; Bruno de Cordier, 'Conflits ethniques et dégradation écologique en Asie Centrale: Les vallées de Ferghana et le nord du Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.399-412; N. A. Omuralieva and A.B. Elebeeva. Sovremennoe sostoianie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v Kyrgyzstane (Bishkek, 1993).
55. Chikeka, op. cit., p.13.
56. Generally speaking, there is a relationship, though no full correlation, between the development of an economy as indicated by the GNP per capita on the one hand, and the percentage of native French speakers in that country and the number of French nationals employed there on a regular basis. And see tables in Anton Andereggen. France's Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa (Westpoint, CT, 1994), pp.96, 107, 112.
57. The title of the third chapter of Pierre Mousa, Les chances économiques de la communauté franco-africaine (Paris, 1957).
58. See Charles O. Chikeka. Africa and the European Economic Community, 1957-1992 (Leanston, NY, 1993), esp. pp.197-206. For economic developments see D.K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980. Economic Decolonization & Arrested Development (London, 1986); Philippe Hugon, 'Models and Economic Performance', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.123-41; Jean Coussy, 'The Franc Zone: Original Logic, Subsequent Evolution and Present Crisis', in ibid., pp.160-80; Catherine Coque-Vidrovitch, 'The Transfer of Economic Power in French Speaking West Africa', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence. The Transfer of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven and London, 1988), pp.105-34.
59. See Charles O. Chikeka. Africa and the European Economic Community, 1957-1992 (Leanston, NY, 1993), esp. pp.197-206. For economic developments see D.K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980. Economic Decolonization & Arrested Development (London, 1986); Philippe Hugon, 'Models and Economic Performance', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.123-41; Jean Coussy, 'The Franc Zone: Original Logic, Subsequent Evolution and Present Crisis', in ibid., pp.160-80; Catherine Coque-Vidrovitch, 'The Transfer of Economic Power in French Speaking West Africa', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence. The Transfer of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven and London, 1988), pp.105-34.
60. See Charles O. Chikeka. Africa and the European Economic Community, 1957-1992 (Leanston, NY, 1993), esp. pp.197-206. For economic developments see D.K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980. Economic Decolonization & Arrested Development (London, 1986); Philippe Hugon, 'Models and Economic Performance', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.123-41; Jean Coussy, 'The Franc Zone: Original Logic, Subsequent Evolution and Present Crisis', in ibid., pp.160-80; Catherine Coque-Vidrovitch, 'The Transfer of Economic Power in French Speaking West Africa', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence. The Transfer of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven and London, 1988), pp.105-34.
61. See Charles O. Chikeka. Africa and the European Economic Community, 1957-1992 (Leanston, NY, 1993), esp. pp.197-206. For economic developments see D.K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980. Economic Decolonization & Arrested Development (London, 1986); Philippe Hugon, 'Models and Economic Performance', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.123-41; Jean Coussy, 'The Franc Zone: Original Logic, Subsequent Evolution and Present Crisis', in ibid., pp.160-80; Catherine Coque-Vidrovitch, 'The Transfer of Economic Power in French Speaking West Africa', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence. The Transfer of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven and London, 1988), pp.105-34.
62. See Charles O. Chikeka. Africa and the European Economic Community, 1957-1992 (Leanston, NY, 1993), esp. pp.197-206. For economic developments see D.K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980. Economic Decolonization & Arrested Development (London, 1986); Philippe Hugon, 'Models and Economic Performance', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.123-41; Jean Coussy, 'The Franc Zone: Original Logic, Subsequent Evolution and Present Crisis', in ibid., pp.160-80; Catherine Coque-Vidrovitch, 'The Transfer of Economic Power in French Speaking West Africa', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence. The Transfer of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven and London, 1988), pp.105-34.
63. Rashid, op. cit., p.4.
64. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
65. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
66. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
67. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
68. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
69. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
70. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
71. For the economic background on, and developments in Central Asia, see Alastair McAuley, The Economies of Central Asia: The Socialist Legacy', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.255-68; Bakhtior A. Islamov, 'Post Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-38; Fridman, op. cit., pp.31-68; Michael Kaser and Santosh Mehrotra. The Central Asian Economies after Independence (London, RIIA, 1992); Michael Kaser, The Economies of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (London, RIIA, 1997); idem, 'Economic Transition in Six Central Asian Economies', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.5-26; Unal Cerikoz, 'A Brief Account of the Economic Situation in the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; Heriberl Dieter, 'Regional Integration in Central Asia: Current Economic Position and Prospects', CAS, Vol.15, No.3-4 (December 1996), pp.365-86.
72. Rashid, op. cit., p.4. For further details, see, Dieter, op.cit.
73. Rashid, op. cit., p.4. For further details, see, Dieter, op.cit.
74. In order to see how inadequate they are for such purposes all one has to do is to compare the territory and population of the different Francophone states to the order of battle of their respective armies at any specific year since independence. Statistics of population and details of the sizes and order of battle of all the military forces in the world are published annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London in its Military Balance.
75. For the French colonial troops mobilized in Africa, see Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts. The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857-1960 (Portsmouth, NH, and London, 1982); Anthony Clayton, France, Soldiers and Africa (London, 1985), pp.333-64.
76. For the French colonial troops mobilized in Africa, see Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts. The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857-1960 (Portsmouth, NH, and London, 1982); Anthony Clayton, France, Soldiers and Africa (London, 1985), pp.333-64.
77. For French intervention see, John Chipman, French Military Policy and African Security, IISS, Adelphi Paper No.221 (London, 1985); Alain Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1994), pp.31-192; Michael Louis Martin, 'Armies and Politics: The "Life-Cycle" of a Military Rule in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.78-98; Robert Buijtenhuijs, 'French Military Intervention: The Case of Chad', in ibid., pp.213-27. A very interesting and informative source which has, however, to be studied critically, is (Jacque Foccart) Foccart parle. Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard (Paris, 1995-97, 3 vols.).
78. For French intervention see, John Chipman, French Military Policy and African Security, IISS, Adelphi Paper No.221 (London, 1985); Alain Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1994), pp.31-192; Michael Louis Martin, 'Armies and Politics: The "Life-Cycle" of a Military Rule in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.78-98; Robert Buijtenhuijs, 'French Military Intervention: The Case of Chad', in ibid., pp.213-27. A very interesting and informative source which has, however, to be studied critically, is (Jacque Foccart) Foccart parle. Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard (Paris, 1995-97, 3 vols.).
79. For French intervention see, John Chipman, French Military Policy and African Security, IISS, Adelphi Paper No.221 (London, 1985); Alain Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1994), pp.31-192; Michael Louis Martin, 'Armies and Politics: The "Life-Cycle" of a Military Rule in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.78-98; Robert Buijtenhuijs, 'French Military Intervention: The Case of Chad', in ibid., pp.213-27. A very interesting and informative source which has, however, to be studied critically, is (Jacque Foccart) Foccart parle. Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard (Paris, 1995-97, 3 vols.).
80. For French intervention see, John Chipman, French Military Policy and African Security, IISS, Adelphi Paper No.221 (London, 1985); Alain Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1994), pp.31-192; Michael Louis Martin, 'Armies and Politics: The "Life-Cycle" of a Military Rule in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.78-98; Robert Buijtenhuijs, 'French Military Intervention: The Case of Chad', in ibid., pp.213-27. A very interesting and informative source which has, however, to be studied critically, is (Jacque Foccart) Foccart parle. Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard (Paris, 1995-97, 3 vols.).
81. For French intervention see, John Chipman, French Military Policy and African Security, IISS, Adelphi Paper No.221 (London, 1985); Alain Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires: French, British and Belgian Involvement in Post-Colonial Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1994), pp.31-192; Michael Louis Martin, 'Armies and Politics: The "Life-Cycle" of a Military Rule in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.78-98; Robert Buijtenhuijs, 'French Military Intervention: The Case of Chad', in ibid., pp.213-27. A very interesting and informative source which has, however, to be studied critically, is (Jacque Foccart) Foccart parle. Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard (Paris, 1995-97, 3 vols.).
82. For the order of battle of the Central Asian states as well as that of their neighbours, see IISS, The Military Balance. For a study of the crystallization of Central Asian defence policies, see Susan Clark, 'The Central Asian States: Defining Security Priorities and Developing Military Forces', in Michael Mandelbaum (ed.), Central Asia and the World (New York, 1994), pp.177-207.
83. For the order of battle of the Central Asian states as well as that of their neighbours, see IISS, The Military Balance. For a study of the crystallization of Central Asian defence policies, see Susan Clark, 'The Central Asian States: Defining Security Priorities and Developing Military Forces', in Michael Mandelbaum (ed.), Central Asia and the World (New York, 1994), pp.177-207.
84. Chikeka, op. cit., p.12.
85. Ibid., p.16. and cf. Papa Ibrahima Seck, La stratégie culturel de la France en Afrique. L'enseignment colonial (1867-1960) (Paris, 1993).
86. Ibid., p.16. and cf. Papa Ibrahima Seck, La stratégie culturel de la France en Afrique. L'enseignment colonial (1867-1960) (Paris, 1993).
87. Chikeka, op. cit., p.16.
88. For these see Andereggen, op. cit., pp.23-59; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.14-83; Yves Person, 'French West Africa Decolonization', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven and London, 1982), pp.141-72; Henri Brunschweg, 'The Decolonization of French Black Africa', in ibid., pp.211-24; Juane Suret-Caule, 'From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa', in ibid., pp.445-82.
89. For these see Andereggen, op. cit., pp.23-59; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.14-83; Yves Person, 'French West Africa Decolonization', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven and London, 1982), pp.141-72; Henri Brunschweg, 'The Decolonization of French Black Africa', in ibid., pp.211-24; Juane Suret-Caule, 'From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa', in ibid., pp.445-82.
90. For these see Andereggen, op. cit., pp.23-59; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.14-83; Yves Person, 'French West Africa Decolonization', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven and London, 1982), pp.141-72; Henri Brunschweg, 'The Decolonization of French Black Africa', in ibid., pp.211-24; Juane Suret-Caule, 'From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa', in ibid., pp.445-82.
91. For these see Andereggen, op. cit., pp.23-59; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.14-83; Yves Person, 'French West Africa Decolonization', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven and London, 1982), pp.141-72; Henri Brunschweg, 'The Decolonization of French Black Africa', in ibid., pp.211-24; Juane Suret-Caule, 'From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa', in ibid., pp.445-82.
92. For these see Andereggen, op. cit., pp.23-59; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.14-83; Yves Person, 'French West Africa Decolonization', in Prosser Gifford and W.M. Roger Louis (eds.), Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven and London, 1982), pp.141-72; Henri Brunschweg, 'The Decolonization of French Black Africa', in ibid., pp.211-24; Juane Suret-Caule, 'From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa', in ibid., pp.445-82.
93. The proverb is: 'Be a tail to the lions and not a head to the foxes'-Pirqey Avot, IV, 5.
94. Leopold-Sedar Senghor, 'A Community of Free and Equal Peoples with the Mother Country', Western World (Brussels), No.18 (1958), pp.41-2.
95. Idem, 'West Africa in Evolution', Foreign Affairs, Vol.39 (1961), p.7.
96. Donald S. Carlisle, 'Uzbekistan and the Uzbeks', Problems of Communism (September-October 1991), pp.26-7.
97. In some of the non-Slavic post-Soviet states, for example, the laws proclaiming the national tongue an official language seem to be literal translations from Russian, including grammar, syntax, and idioms. And cf. William Fierman, 'Independence and the Declining Priority of Language Law Implementation in Uzbekistan', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.205-30.
98. In many cases people, even when exclusively in the company of native speakers of their own language, prefer to speak in Russian among themselves.
99. Nursultan Nazarbayev, Bez pravykh i levykh (Moscow, 1991).
100. Rashid, op. cit., p.2.
101. For the traditional culture of the lower strata of society, see Sergei P. Poliakov, Everyday Islam, Religion and Tradition in Rural Central Asia (Armank, NY, 1992).
102. One might argue that the Russian intervention in Tajikistan was mainly (if not solely) because the ruling elite there had been toppled. See also Barnett R. Rubin, 'Tajikistan: From Soviet Republic to Russian-Uzbek Protectorate', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.207-24; Catherine Poujol, 'Some Reflections on Russian Involvement in the Tajik Conflict, 1992-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.99-118.
103. One might argue that the Russian intervention in Tajikistan was mainly (if not solely) because the ruling elite there had been toppled. See also Barnett R. Rubin, 'Tajikistan: From Soviet Republic to Russian-Uzbek Protectorate', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.207-24; Catherine Poujol, 'Some Reflections on Russian Involvement in the Tajik Conflict, 1992-1993', in Djalili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.99-118.
104. How complicated, costly and lengthy a process the projection of military power overseas can be, has been demonstrated by the American build up of its forces in the Gulf following Saddam Husayn's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Only after six months were sufficient forces amassed to stage an offensive.
105. Karimov, op. cit., pp.29-40.
106. As stated above, in Kazakhstan the Russophones formed in 1989 at least 50.7% of the population (compared to 39.7% of the titular nationality), in Kyrgyzstan-26.8% (compared to52.4%), in Tajikistan 9.5% (62.3%), in Turkmenistan-11.9% (72.0%) and in Uzbekistan-10.2% (71.4%). For a review of their position, see Valery A. Tishkov, 'The Russians in Central Asia and Kazakhstan', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.289-310.
107. V.G. Mitiaev and R.A. Shilova, 'Problemy russkoiazychnogo nasseleniia v Kazakhstane', in E.M. Kochin (ed.), Novaia Evraziia. Otnosheniia Rossii so stranami blizhnego zarubezh'ia. Sbornik stat'ei, No.5 (Moscow, 1996), pp.5-52; G. Iu. Sitiianskii, 'Tadzhikistan i Kirgiziia: Re-emigratsiia-real'nost' ili fantaziia?' in V. Tishkov (ed.), op. cit., pp.253-68; Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op.cit.
108. V.G. Mitiaev and R.A. Shilova, 'Problemy russkoiazychnogo nasseleniia v Kazakhstane', in E.M. Kochin (ed.), Novaia Evraziia. Otnosheniia Rossii so stranami blizhnego zarubezh'ia. Sbornik stat'ei, No.5 (Moscow, 1996), pp.5-52; G. Iu. Sitiianskii, 'Tadzhikistan i Kirgiziia: Re-emigratsiia-real'nost' ili fantaziia?' in V. Tishkov (ed.), op. cit., pp.253-68; Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op.cit.
109. V.G. Mitiaev and R.A. Shilova, 'Problemy russkoiazychnogo nasseleniia v Kazakhstane', in E.M. Kochin (ed.), Novaia Evraziia. Otnosheniia Rossii so stranami blizhnego zarubezh'ia. Sbornik stat'ei, No.5 (Moscow, 1996), pp.5-52; G. Iu. Sitiianskii, 'Tadzhikistan i Kirgiziia: Re-emigratsiia-real'nost' ili fantaziia?' in V. Tishkov (ed.), op. cit., pp.253-68; Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op.cit.
110. The only example from the French colonial empire slightly reminiscent of the cases of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan was Algeria, where a massive Francophone population-the pieds noirs-lived. However, France and Algeria were not contingent. They were separated by a sea. More important, all the Francophone settlers 'repatriated' to France after Algeria gained its independence.
111. This may well be one of the undeclared reasons to moving the capital to Akmolla (renamed Astana).
112. For China's relations with and policies towards the Central Asian states, see Yasmin Melet, 'China's Political and Economic Relations with Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.17, No.2 (June 1998), pp.229-52; James P Dorian, Brett Widgortz and Dru Gladney, 'Central Asia and Xinjang, China: Emerging Energy, Economic and Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.16, No.4 (December 1997), pp.461-86.
113. For China's relations with and policies towards the Central Asian states, see Yasmin Melet, 'China's Political and Economic Relations with Kazakhstan', CAS, Vol.17, No.2 (June 1998), pp.229-52; James P Dorian, Brett Widgortz and Dru Gladney, 'Central Asia and Xinjang, China: Emerging Energy, Economic and Ethnic Relations', CAS, Vol.16, No.4 (December 1997), pp.461-86.
114. Karimov, op. cit., pp.19-28, 41-50.
115. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
116. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
117. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
118. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
119. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
120. See, for example, Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.71-91, 157-61; Alexei V. Malashenko, 'Islam and Politics in the Southern Zone of the Former USSR', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.109-26; Mehrad Haghayeghi, 'Islamic Revival in the Central Asian Republics', CAS, Vol.13, No.2 (1994), pp.249-66; Martha Brill Olcott, 'Islam and Fundamentalism in Idependent Central Asia', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.21-39; Reef Altoma, 'The Influence of Islam in Post Soviet Kazakhstan', in Manz (ed.), op. cit., pp.164-81; Hafizullah Emadi, 'State, Ideology and Islamic Resurgence in Tajikistan', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.565-74.
121. Karimov, op. cit., pp.137-8, 186, 187-94.
122. In a conversation in October 1994 in Bishkek.
123. According to Kyrgyz sources this is precisely what happened in the disturbances in Osh in 1990-Talant Razakov (ed.), Osh koogalan∼y. KGBnyn maalymattary boiuncha/ Oshskie sobytiia na materialakh KGB (Bishkek, 1993). And cf. Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op. cit., pp.107-8. For the interrelationship between Islam and nationalism in general, see Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.162-201, especially p.192 onward; Nancy Lubin, 'Islam and Ethnic Identity in Central Asia: A View from Below', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.53-70.
124. According to Kyrgyz sources this is precisely what happened in the disturbances in Osh in 1990-Talant Razakov (ed.), Osh koogalan∼y. KGBnyn maalymattary boiuncha/ Oshskie sobytiia na materialakh KGB (Bishkek, 1993). And cf. Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op. cit., pp.107-8. For the interrelationship between Islam and nationalism in general, see Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.162-201, especially p.192 onward; Nancy Lubin, 'Islam and Ethnic Identity in Central Asia: A View from Below', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.53-70.
125. According to Kyrgyz sources this is precisely what happened in the disturbances in Osh in 1990-Talant Razakov (ed.), Osh koogalan∼y. KGBnyn maalymattary boiuncha/ Oshskie sobytiia na materialakh KGB (Bishkek, 1993). And cf. Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op. cit., pp.107-8. For the interrelationship between Islam and nationalism in general, see Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.162-201, especially p.192 onward; Nancy Lubin, 'Islam and Ethnic Identity in Central Asia: A View from Below', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.53-70.
126. According to Kyrgyz sources this is precisely what happened in the disturbances in Osh in 1990-Talant Razakov (ed.), Osh koogalan∼y. KGBnyn maalymattary boiuncha/ Oshskie sobytiia na materialakh KGB (Bishkek, 1993). And cf. Omuralieva and Elebeeva, op. cit., pp.107-8. For the interrelationship between Islam and nationalism in general, see Haghayeghi, op. cit., pp.162-201, especially p.192 onward; Nancy Lubin, 'Islam and Ethnic Identity in Central Asia: A View from Below', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.53-70.
127. Martha Brill Olcott, 'Ceremony and Substance in Central Asia', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.17-46; Donald S. Carlisle, 'Geopolitics and Ethnic Problems of Uzbehistan and Its Neighbours', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.71-103.
128. Martha Brill Olcott, 'Ceremony and Substance in Central Asia', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.17-46; Donald S. Carlisle, 'Geopolitics and Ethnic Problems of Uzbehistan and Its Neighbours', in Ro'i (ed.), op. cit., pp.71-103.
129. Inter alia the lion's share of Uzbekistan's water supply either originates or passes through Tajikistan. The rest originates in Kyrgyzstan.
130. For foreign intervention and interests in Tajikistan, see Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare, 'Regional Ambitions and Interests in Tajikistan: The Role of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran', in Djelili, Grare and Akiner (eds.), op. cit., pp.119-31.
131. Meryem Kirimli, 'Uzbekistan in the New World Order', CAS, Vol.16, No.1 (March 1997), pp.53-64.
132. Thus, the policy of assimilation - so deeply rooted in French ideology and self-perception -could be presented as having also a 'practical' aim.
133. See, for example, Charles de Gaulle. Mémoires de Guerre, Vol.I, L'Appel (Paris, 1954), passim. For the official history of the war effort of 'Free France' in Africa see Jean-Noel Vincent, Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'aix en Afrique, 1940-1943 (Château de Vencennes, 1982). And cf. Andereggen, op. cit., pp.21-3; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.3-12; Clayton, op. cit., pp.127-52;
134. See, for example, Charles de Gaulle. Mémoires de Guerre, Vol.I, L'Appel (Paris, 1954), passim. For the official history of the war effort of 'Free France' in Africa see Jean-Noel Vincent, Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'aix en Afrique, 1940-1943 (Château de Vencennes, 1982). And cf. Andereggen, op. cit., pp.21-3; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.3-12; Clayton, op. cit., pp.127-52;
135. See, for example, Charles de Gaulle. Mémoires de Guerre, Vol.I, L'Appel (Paris, 1954), passim. For the official history of the war effort of 'Free France' in Africa see Jean-Noel Vincent, Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'aix en Afrique, 1940-1943 (Château de Vencennes, 1982). And cf. Andereggen, op. cit., pp.21-3; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.3-12; Clayton, op. cit., pp.127-52;
136. See, for example, Charles de Gaulle. Mémoires de Guerre, Vol.I, L'Appel (Paris, 1954), passim. For the official history of the war effort of 'Free France' in Africa see Jean-Noel Vincent, Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'aix en Afrique, 1940-1943 (Château de Vencennes, 1982). And cf. Andereggen, op. cit., pp.21-3; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.3-12; Clayton, op. cit., pp.127-52;
137. See, for example, Charles de Gaulle. Mémoires de Guerre, Vol.I, L'Appel (Paris, 1954), passim. For the official history of the war effort of 'Free France' in Africa see Jean-Noel Vincent, Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'aix en Afrique, 1940-1943 (Château de Vencennes, 1982). And cf. Andereggen, op. cit., pp.21-3; de Lousignan, op. cit., pp.3-12; Clayton, op. cit., pp.127-52;
138. For example, see François G. Constantin. 'The Foreign Policy of Francophone Africa: Clientalism and After', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.183-99; Keith Panter-Brick, 'Independence French Style', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization, pp.73-106; Andereggen, op. cit., pp.61-97.
139. For example, see François G. Constantin. 'The Foreign Policy of Francophone Africa: Clientalism and After', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.183-99; Keith Panter-Brick, 'Independence French Style', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization, pp.73-106; Andereggen, op. cit., pp.61-97.
140. For example, see François G. Constantin. 'The Foreign Policy of Francophone Africa: Clientalism and After', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.183-99; Keith Panter-Brick, 'Independence French Style', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization, pp.73-106; Andereggen, op. cit., pp.61-97.
141. See, for example, Milan L. Hauner, 'The Disintegration of the Soviet Eurasian Empire. An Ongoing Debate', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-33; Arthur Sagadaev, 'Great Power Ideology and the Muslim Nations of the CIS', in ibid., pp.234-47 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.169-80); Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russian Foreign Policy and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus', CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.181-215.
142. See, for example, Milan L. Hauner, 'The Disintegration of the Soviet Eurasian Empire. An Ongoing Debate', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-33; Arthur Sagadaev, 'Great Power Ideology and the Muslim Nations of the CIS', in ibid., pp.234-47 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.169-80); Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russian Foreign Policy and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus', CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.181-215.
143. See, for example, Milan L. Hauner, 'The Disintegration of the Soviet Eurasian Empire. An Ongoing Debate', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-33; Arthur Sagadaev, 'Great Power Ideology and the Muslim Nations of the CIS', in ibid., pp.234-47 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.169-80); Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russian Foreign Policy and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus', CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.181-215.
144. See, for example, Milan L. Hauner, 'The Disintegration of the Soviet Eurasian Empire. An Ongoing Debate', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.202-33; Arthur Sagadaev, 'Great Power Ideology and the Muslim Nations of the CIS', in ibid., pp.234-47 (a previous version was published in CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.169-80); Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russian Foreign Policy and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus', CAS, Vol.12, No.2 (1993), pp.181-215.
145. At the moment the so-called 'fundamentalist Islam' seems to be high on this list of perceived threats.
146. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
147. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
148. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
149. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
150. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
151. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
152. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
153. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
154. For the new geopolitical and geostrategic importance of post-Soviet Central Asia, see Anthony Hyman, Power and Politics in Central Asia's New Republics. Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, Conflict Studies No.273 (August 1994); Irina D. Zviagelskaya, 'Central Asia and Transcaucasia: New Geopolitics', in Naumkin (ed.), op. cit., pp.127-56; Sergei A. Pamarin, 'Political Dynamics of the "New" East (1985-1993)', in ibid., pp.69-107; Graham F. Fuller, 'Russia and Central Asia: Federation or Fault?', in Mandelbaum (ed.), op. cit., pp.94-129; Barnett R. Rubin, in ibid., pp.207-24; Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russia and the Geopolitics of the Muslim South', in Mesbahi (ed.), op. cit., pp.268-319; Mohammad-Reza Djelili, 'Caucase et Asie Centrale: entrée en scène et récomposition géostrategique de l'espace', CAS, Vol.13, No.1 (1994), pp.7-18; M. E. Ahrari, 'The Dynamics of the New Great Game in Muslim Central Asia', CAS, Vol.13, No.4 (1994), pp.491-506; Stephen Blank, 'Energy, Economics and the Security of Central Asia: Russia and its Rivals', CAS, Vol.14, No.3 (1995), pp.373-406.
155. Other strategically important minerals, such as uranium, are also to be found in Central Asia.
156. These are Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. There are signs that also Uzbekistan might have large oil reserves.
157. Moscow would thus simultaneously also enhance her economic influence there.
158. For these problems, see Tishkov (ed.), op.cit.
159. For French policies in Africa in the 1990s, see Chris Alden, 'From Policy Autonomy to Policy Integration: The Evaluation of France's Role in Africa', in Chris Alden and Jean Pascal Dalor (eds.), Paris, Pretoria and the African Continent. The International Relations of States and Societies in Transition (London and New York, 1996), pp.11-25; Jean-Francois Bayart, 'End Game South of the Sahara? France's African Policy', in ibid., pp.26-41.
160. For French policies in Africa in the 1990s, see Chris Alden, 'From Policy Autonomy to Policy Integration: The Evaluation of France's Role in Africa', in Chris Alden and Jean Pascal Dalor (eds.), Paris, Pretoria and the African Continent. The International Relations of States and Societies in Transition (London and New York, 1996), pp.11-25; Jean-Francois Bayart, 'End Game South of the Sahara? France's African Policy', in ibid., pp.26-41.
161. For Russian perceptions of the Policies of other Powers in Central Asia,
162. For Russian perceptions of the Policies of other Powers in Central Asia, see for example L. M. Vorob'eva, 'Otnoshenie Zapada k politike Rossii v blizhnem zarubzh'e', in E.M. Kozhokhin (ed.), Novaia Evraziia: Otnosheniia Rossii so stranami blizhnego zarubezh'ia. Sbornik stat'ei, Vol.4 (Moscow, 1995), pp.91-118; N. I. Komissina, 'politika Iaponii v otnoshenii tsentral'noaziiatskikh gosudarstv SNG', in E. M. Kozhokhin (ed.), Novaia Evraziia: Otnosheniia Rossii so stranami blizhnego zarubezh'ia. Sbornik stat'ei, Vol.6 (Moscow, 1997), pp.5-37.
163. For comparisons of French and British decolonization, see Tony Smith, 'Patterns of Transfer of Power: A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonization', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Transfer, pp.87-116; John Hargraves, 'Decolonization French and British Styles', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.3-15.
164. For comparisons of French and British decolonization, see Tony Smith, 'Patterns of Transfer of Power: A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonization', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Transfer, pp.87-116; John Hargraves, 'Decolonization French and British Styles', in Kirk-Greene and Bech (eds.), op. cit., pp.3-15.
165. Many Britons find it annoying that the majority among the members of the British Commonwealth side with India rather than with the United Kingdom whenever there is a difference between the two. This, however, should not come as a surprise. After all India, not Britain, was to all purposes the heart and centre of the Empire which was built around India. Here lies the big difference: in the French Empire France - or rather Paris - was the undisputed centre. Furthermore, unlike the UK. France abandoned very quickly its attempt at an organization of all its ex-colonies - the Communauté Française - in favour of bilateral agreements with each of them, which multiplied French dominance.
166. One might even suggest that under de Gaulle France has finally learned the secret of indirect rule: as Andereggen wrote, 'cooperation was intended to provide more than just assistance or aid; its real aim was to maintain [France's] privileged links in spite of international sovereignty'. Thus, while officially acknowledging the sovereignty of its ex-colonies, France managed through a 'complex network' of about 50 bilateral agreements 'to institutionalize its political, economic and cultural pre-eminence over its former African dependencies' (pp.62-3).