The preanalytic phase: An important component of laboratory medicine

American Journal of Clinical Pathology

Volumn 113, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 429-452

  Narayanan, Sheshadri ^a  

^a METROPOLITAN HOSPITAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Analyte stability; Endogenous interference factors; Physiologic; Preanalytic phase variables; Specimen collection and processing

Indexed keywords

ALTITUDE; ANALYTIC METHOD; ANTICOAGULATION; ARTICLE; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; LIFESTYLE; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX DIFFERENCE;

EID: 0034051043     PISSN: 00029173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1309/c0nm-q7r0-ll2e-b3uy     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Young DS. Effects of Preanalytical Variables on Clinical Laboratory Tests. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: AACC Press; 1997.
2. Guder WG, Narayanan S, Wisser H, et al. Samples: From the Patient to the Laboratory: The Impact of Preanalytical Variables on the Quality of Laboratory Results. Darmstadt, Germany: GIT Verlag; 1996:1-149.
3. Narayanan S. Physiological variables in blood sampling. Mitt Klin Chem. 1993;24:130-134.
4. Mc Comb RB, Bowers GN, Posen S. Alkaline Phosphatase. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1979:527-528.
5. Monroe BL, Weinbert AG, Rosenfeld CR, et al. The neonatal blood count in health and disease, I: reference values for neutrophilic cells. J Pediatr. 1979;95:89-98.
6. Weinberg AG, Rosenfeld CR, Monroe BL, et al. Neonatal blood count in health and disease, II: values for lymphocytes, monocytes and eosinophils. J Pediatr. 1985; 106:462-466.
7. Narayanan S, Appleton HD. Creatinine: a review. Clin Chem. 1980;26:1119-1126.
8. Narayanan S. Pre and post analytical errors. Indian J Clin Biochem. 1996;11:7-11.
9. Pacini G, Valerio A, Beccaro F, et al. Insulin sensitivity and beta cell responsivity are not decreased in elderly subjects with normal OGTT. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1988;36:317-323.
10. De Kloet ER. Corticosteroids, stress and aging. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1992;663:357-371.
11. Narayanan S. Laboratory markers as an index of aging. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1996;26:50-59.
12. Daynes RA, Araneo BA, Ershler WB, et al. Altered regulation of IL-6 production with normal aging: possible linkage to the age associated decline in dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfated derivative. J Immunol. 1993;150:5219-5230.
13. Zhou D, Chrest FJ, Adler W, et al. Increased production of TGF-beta and IL-6 by aged spleen cells. Immunol Lett. 1993;36:7-11.
14. Crawford GA, Johnson AG, Gyory AZ, et al. Change in arginine vasopressin concentration with age [letter]. Clin Chem. 1993;39:2023.
15. Harman SM, Wehmann RE, Blackman MR. Pituitary-thyroid hormone economy in healthy aging men: basal indices of thyroid function and thyrotropin responses to constant infusions of thyrotropin releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984;58:320-326.
16. Kratz A, Lewandrowski KB. Normal reference laboratory values. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1063-1072.
17. Petrovsky N, McNair P, Harrison LC. Diurnal rhythms of pro-inflammatory cytokines: regulation by plasma cortisol and therapeutic implications. Cytokine. 1998;10:307-312.
18. Miyawaki T, Taga K, Nagaoki T, et al. Diurnal changes of T lymphocyte subsets in human peripheral blood. Clin Exp Immunol. 1984;55:618-622.
19. Auzeby A, Bogdan A, Krosi Z, et al. Time-dependence of urinary neopterin, a marker of cellular immune activity. Clin Chem. 1988;34:1866-1867.
20. Keffer JH. Preanalytical considerations in testing thyroid function. Clin Chem. 1996;42:125-134.
21. Narayanan S. Current concepts of thyroid function and laboratory evaluation. Indian J Clin Biochem. 1997;12:25-34.
22. Cooper GR, Myers GL, Smith JJ, et al. Standardization of lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein measurements. Clin Chem. 1988;34:B95-105.
23. Narayanan S. Pre and post analytical errors in lipid determination. Indian J Clin Biochem. 1996;11:12-16.
24. Statland BE, Winkel P. Effect of preanalytical factors on the intra-individual variation of analytes in the blood of healthy subjects: consideration of preparation of the subject and time of venipuncture. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 1977;9:105-144.
25. Harrop IS, Ashwell K, Hopton MR. Circannual and within individual variation of thyroid function tests in normal subjects. Ann Clin Biochem. 1985;22:371-375.
26. Narayanan S. Laboratory monitoring of gestational diabetes. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1991;21:392-401.
27. Cooper GR, Myers GL, Smith J, et al. Blood lipid measurements: variations and practical utility. JAMA. 1992;267:1652-1660.
28. Knopp RH, Walden CE, Whal PW, et al. Effect of postpartum lactation on lipoprotein lipids and apoproteins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;60:542-547.
29. Burrow GN, Fisher DA, Larsen PR. Maternal and fetal thyroid function. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1072-1078.
30. Sprengers ED, Kluft C. Plasminogen activator inhibitors. Blood. 1987;69:381-387.
31. Narayanan S, Hamasaki N. Current concepts of coagulation and fibrinolysis. Adv Clin Chem. 1999;33:133-168.
32. Harris WS, Connor WE, Illingworth DR, et al. Effects of fish oil on VLDL triglyceride kinetics in humans. J Lipid Res. 1990;31:1549-1558.
33. Sacks FM, Ornish D, Rosner B, et al. Plasma lipoprotein levels in vegetarians. JAMA. 1985;254:1337-1341.
34. Robertson D, Frolich JC, Carr RK, et al. Effects of caffeine on plasma renin activity, catecholamines, and blood pressure. N Engl J Med. 1978;298:181-186.
35. Van Dusseldorp M, Katan MB, Demacker PNM. Effect of decaffeinated versus regular coffee on serum lipoproteins: a 12-week double-blind trial. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;132:33-40.
36. Freer DE, Statland BE. Effects of ethanol (0.75 g/kg body weight) on the activities of selected enzymes in sera of healthy young adults, II: interindividual variations in response of gamma-glutamyltransferase to repeated ethanol challenges. Clin Chem. 1977;23:2099-2102.
37. Freer DE, Statland BE. The effect of ethanol (0.5 g/kg body weight) on the activities of selected enzymes in sera of healthy young adults, I, intermediate term effects. Clin Chem. 1977;23:830-834.
38. Taskinin MR, Nikkila EA, Valimaki M, et al. Alcohol-induced changes in serum lipoproteins and in their metabolism. Am Heart J. 1987;113:458-464.
39. Haboubi NAA, Bignell AHC, Haboubi NY. Serum angiotensin converting enzyme activity in cigarette smokers. Clin Chim Acta. 1986, 154:69-72.
40. Cloey T, Bachorik PS, Becker D, et al. Reevaluation of serum-plasma difference in total cholesterol concentration. JAMA. 1990;263:2788-2789.
41. Young DS. Biological variability. In: Brown SS, Mitchell FL, Young DS, eds. Chemical Diagnosis of Disease. New York, NY: Elsevier; 1979:1-113.
42. Narayanan S. Considerations in therapeutic drug monitoring. Ital J Clin Pathol. 1984;4:73-75.
43. Pippenger CE. Quantitation and interpretation of serum drug concentrations. In: Spiegel HE, ed. Clinical Biochemistry: Contemporary Theories and Techniques. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1982:2:255-297.
44. Narayanan S. Renal biochemistry and physiology: pathophysiology and analytical perspectives. Adv Clin Chem. 1992;29:121-159.
45. Guder WG, Ivandic M, Hofmann W. Pathophysiology of proteinuria and laboratory diagnostic strategy based on single protein analysis. Clin Chem Lab Med. 1998;36: 935-939.
46. Tan ACITL, Kloppenborg PWC, Benraad TJ. Influence of age, posture and intra-individual variation on plasma levels of atrial natriuretic peptide. Ann Clin Biochem. 1989;26: 481-486.
47. Don BR, Sebastian A, Cheitlin M, et al. Pseudohyperkalemia caused by fist clenching during phlebotomy. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1290-1292.
48. Skinner SL, Adelaide MB. A cause of erroneous potassium levels. Lancet. 1961;1:478-480.
49. Kollee LAA, Willems JL, de Kort AFM, et al. Blood sampling technique for lactate and pyruvate estimation in children. Ann Clin Biochem. 1977;14:285-287.
50. Hardman AE, Hudson A, Jones PRM, et al. Brisk walking and plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration in previously sedentary women. Br Med J. 1989;299:1204-1205.
51. Novotny WF, Palmier MO, Wun TC, et al. Purification and properties of heparin releasable lipoprotein-associated inhibitor. Blood. 1991;78:394-400.
52. Narayanan S. Effect of anticoagulants used for blood collection on laboratory tests. Jpn J Clin Pathol. 1996;103:73-80.
53. Guder W, Ehret W, Fonseca-Wollheim FD, et al. Serum, plasma or whole blood? Which anticoagulants to use. J Lab Med. 1998;22:297-312.
54. Narayanan S. Relative merits of plasma derived from three heparin salts and serum for sodium and potassium measurements by direct and indirect potentiometry. In: Maas AHJ, Boink FBTJ, Saris NL, et al, eds. Methodology and Clinical Applications of Ion Selective Electrodes. Copenhagen, Denmark: IFCC Technical Secretariat. 1986;7:209-212.
55. Berg JD, Romano G, Bayley NF, et al. Heparin interferes with aspartate aminotransferase activity determination in the Ektachem 700. Clin Chem. 1988;34:174.
56. Doumas BT, Hause LL, Simuncak DM, et al. Differences between values for plasma and serum in tests performed in the Ektachem 700 XR analyzer and evaluation of "plasma separator tubes (PST)." Clin Chem. 1989;35:151-153.
57. Toffaletti J, Ernst P, Hunt P, et al. Dry electrolyte-balanced heparinized syringes evaluated for determining ionized calcium and other electrolytes in whole blood. Clin Chem. 1991;37:1730-1733.
58. Toffaletti J. Use of novel preparations of heparin to eliminate interference in ionized calcium measurements: have all the problems been solved? Clin Chem. 1994;40:5508-5509.
59. Landt M, Hortin GL, Smith CH, et al. Interference in ionized calcium measurements by heparin salts. Clin Chem. 1994;40:565-570.
60. Siebers RWL, Chen CT, Ferguson RI, et al. Effect of blood sample tubes on amiodarone and desethyl amiodarone concentrations. Ther Drug Monit. 1988;10:349-351.
61. Berquist Y, Domeji-Nyberg B. Distribution of chloroquine and its metabolite desethylchloroquine in human blood cells and its implication for the quantitative determination of these compounds in serum and plasma. J Chromatogr. 1983;272:137-148.
62. 3 EDTA: the anticoagulant of choice in routine hematology? Clin Lab Haematol. 1991;13:291-295.
63. Sacker IS. Specimen collection. In: Lewis SM, Coster JF, eds. Quality Control in Haematology: Symposium of the International Committee for Standardization in Haematology. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1975:211-229.
64. Reardon DM, Warner B, Trowbridge EA. EDTA, the traditional anticoagulant of hematology: with increased automation is it time for a review? Med Lab Sci. 1991;48:72-75.
65. Narayanan S. Preanalytical aspects of coagulation testing. Haematologica. 1995;80(2 suppl):1-5.
66. Adcock DM, Kressin DC, Marlar RA. Effect of 3.2% vs 3.8% sodium citrate concentration on routine coagulation testing. Am J Clin Pathol. 1997;107:105-110.
67. Chan AYW, Swaminathan R, Cockram CS. Effectiveness of sodium fluoride as a preservative of glucose in blood. Clin Chem. 1989;35:315-317.
68. Sidebottom RA, Williams PR, Kanarek KS. Glucose determinations in plasma and serum: potential error related to increased hematocrit. Clin Chem. 1982;28:190-192.
69. Meites S, Saniel-Banrey K. Preservation, distribution and assay of glucose in blood, with special reference to the newborn. Clin Chem. 1979;25:531-534.
70. Uchida K, Matuse R, Toyoda E, et al. A new method of inhibiting glycolysis in blood samples. Clin Chim Acta. 1988;172:101-108.
71. Liss E, Bechtel S. Improvement of glucose preservation in blood samples. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1990;28:689-690.
72. Nakashima K, Takei H, Nasu Y, et al. D-mannose as a preservative of glucose in blood samples. Clin Chem. 1987;33:708-710.
73. Ho CS, Fung SL, Chan AY. Interference of D-mannose in glucose measurements by glucose oxidase and hexokinase methods [letter]. Clin Chem. 1991;37:477.
74. Contant G, Gouavult-Heilmann M, Martinoli JL. Heparin inactivation during blood storage: its prevention by blood collection in citric acid, theophylline, adenosine, dipyridamole-CTAD mixture. Thromb Res. 1983;31:365-374.
75. Narayanan S. Inhibition of in vitro platelet aggregation and release and fibrinolysis. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1989;19:260-265.
76. Van Den Besselaar AMH, Meeuwisse-Braun J, Jansen-Gruter R, et al. Monitoring heparin therapy by the activated partial thromboplastin time: the effect of preanalytical conditions. Thromb Haemost. 1987;58:226-231.
77. Kuhne T, Hornstein A, Semple J, et al. Flow cytometric evaluation of platelet activation in blood collected into EDTA vs Diatube-H, a sodium citrate solution supplemented with theophylline, adenosine and dipyridamole. Am J Hematol. 1995;50:40-45.
78. Watkins J, Wild G, Smith S. Nafamostat to stabilize plasma samples taken for complement measurements. Lancet. 1989;1:896-897.
79. Narayanan S. Protection of peptidic substrates by protease inhibitors. Biochim Clin. 1987;11:954-956.
80. Pandian MR, Morgan CH, Carlton E, et al. Modified immunoradiometric assay of parathyroid hormone-related protein: clinical application in the differential diagnosis of hypercalcemia. Clin Chem. 1992;38:282-288.
81. Narayanan S. Quality control in tumor marker analysis: preanalytical, analytical, and post analytical issues. J Clin Ligand Assay. 1998;21:11-17.
82. Boomsma F, Alberts G, van Eijk L, et al. Optimum collection and storage conditions for catecholamine measurements in human plasma and urine. Clin Chem. 1993;39:2503-2508.
83. Connaghan DG, Francis CE, Ryan DH, et al. Prevalence and clinical implications of heparin-associated false positive tests for serum fibrin(ogen) degradation products. Am J Clin Pathol. 1986;86:304-310.
84. Mohler MA, Refino CJ, Chen SA, et al. D-Phe-Pro-Arg-chloromethylketone: its potential use in inhibiting formation of in vitro artifacts in blood collected during tissue-type plasminogen activator thrombolytic therapy. Thromb Haemost. 1986;56:160-164.
85. Tsuji T, Masuda H, Imagawa K, et al. Stability of human atrial natriuretic peptide in blood sample. Clin Chim Acta. 1994;225:171-177.
86. Numata Y, Dohi K, Furukawa A, et al. Immunoradiometric assay for the N-terminal fragment of proatrial natriuretic peptide in human plasma. Clin Chem. 1998;44:1008-1013.
87. Reneke J, Etzell J, Leslie S, et al. Prolonged prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time due to underfilled specimen tubes with 109 mmol/L (3.2%) citrate anticoagulant. Am J Clin Pathol. 1998;109:754-757.
88. Siegel JE, Bernard DW, Swami VK, et al. Monitoring heparin therapy: aPTT results from partial-vs full-draw tubes. Am J Clin Pathol. 1998;110:184-187.
89. Koepke JA, Rodgers JL, Ollivier MJ. Pre-instrumental variables in coagulation testing. Am J Clin Pathol. 1975;64: 591-596.
90. O'Connell ME, Heim KL, Halstenson CE, et al. Analytical accuracy of determinations of aminoglycoside concentrations by enzyme multiplied immunoassay, fluorescence polarization immunoassay, and radioimmunoassay in the presence of heparin. J Clin Microbiol. 1984;20:1080-1082.
91. Pewarchuk W, Vanderboom J, Blajchman MA. Pseudopolycythemia, pseudothrombocytopenia, and pseudoleukopenia due to overfilling of blood collection vacuum tubes. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1992;116:90-92.
92. Aranson MD, Bor DH. Blood cultures. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:246-253.
93. Washington JA II, Ilstrup DM. Blood cultures: issues and controversies. Rev Infect Dis. 1986;8:792-802.
94. Ono T, Kitaguchi K, Takehara M, et al. Serum constituents analyses: effect of duration and temperature of storage of clotted blood. Clin Chem. 1981;27:35-38.
95. da Fonseca-Wollheim F. Deamidation of glutamine by increased plasma gamma-glutamyltransferase is a source of rapid ammonia formation in blood and plasma specimens. Clin Chem. 1990;36(8 Pt 1):1479-1482.
96. Ho C, Wu S. The influence of time, temperature, and packed cell volume on activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time. Thromb Res. 1991;62:625-633.
97. Plumhoff EA, Thompson CK, Fisher PK, et al. Effects of specimen storage and handling on coagulation testing [abstract]. Thromb Haemost. 1993;69:866.
98. Keshgegian AA, Bull GE. Evaluation of a soft-handling computerized pneumatic tube specimen delivery system: effects on analytical results and turnaround time. Am J Clin Pathol. 1992;97:535-540.
99. Astles JR, Lubarsky D, Loun B, et al. Pneumatic transport exacerbates interference of room air contamination in blood gas samples. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1996;120:642-647.
100. Lippi U, Schiniella M, Modena N, et al. Advantages of a new anticoagulant in routine hematology on the Coulter counter S-Plus STKR analyzer. Am J Clin Pathol. 1990;93:760-764.
101. Nicholson JKA, Jones BM, Cross D, et al. Comparison of T- and B-cell analysis on fresh and aged blood. J Immunol Methods. 1984;73:29-40.
102. Carter PH, Resto-Ruiz S, Washington GC, et al. Flow cytometric analysis of whole blood lysis, three anticoagulants, and five cell preparations. Cytometry. 1992;13:68-74.
103. Narayanan S. Preanalytical and analytical pitfalls in molecular biology techniques. J Clin Ligand Assay. 1997;20:200-205.
104. Engstad CS, Gutteberg TJ, Osterud B. Modulation of blood cell activation by four commonly used anticoagulants. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:690-696.
105. Young DS. Effect of Drugs on Clinical Laboratory Tests. 4th ed. Washington, DC: AACC Press; 1995.
106. Primus FJ, Kelley EA, Hansen HJ, et al. "Sandwich-type" immunoassay of carcinoembryonic antigen in patients receiving murine monoclonal antibodies for diagnosis and therapy. Clin Chem. 1988;34:261-264.
107. Cornbleet J. Spurious results from automated hematology cell counters. Lab Med. 1983;14:509-514.
108. Fiorin F, Steffan A, Pradella P, et al. IgG platelet antibodies in EDTA-dependent pseudothrombocytopenia bind to platelet membrane glycoprotein Ilb. Am J Clin Pathol. 1998;110:178-183.
109. Hillyer CD, Knopf AN, Berkman EM. EDTA-dependent leukoagglutination. Am J Clin Pathol. 1990;94:458-461.
110. Moraglio D, Banfi G, Arnelli A. Association of pseudothrombocytopenia and pseudoleukopenia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1994;54:257-265.
111. Bizzaro N, Goldschmeding R, van dem Borne AE. Platelet satellitism is Fc gamma R III (CD16) receptor mediated. Am J Clin Pathol. 1995;103:740-744.
112. Peters MJ, Heyderman RS, Hatch DJ, et al. Investigation of platelet-neutrophil interactions in whole blood by flow cytometry. J Immunol Methods. 1997;209:125-135.
113. Caraway WT. Chemical and diagnostic specificity of laboratory tests. Am J Clin Pathol. 1961;37:445-464.
114. Laessig RH, Hassemer DJ, Paskey TA, et al. The effects of 0.1 and 1.0 per cent erythrocytes and hemolysis on serum chemistry values. Am J Clin Pathol. 1978;66:639-644.
115. Yucel D, Dalva K. Effect of in vitro hemolysis on 25 common biochemical tests. Clin Chem. 1992;38:575-577.
116. Van der Woerd-de Lange JA, Guder WG, Schieicher E, et al. Studies on the interference by hemoglobin in the determination of bilirubin. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1983;21:437-443.
117. Leary NO, Pembroke A, Duggan PF. Improving accuracy of glucose oxidase procedure for glucose determinations on discrete analyzers. Clin Chem. 1992;38:298-302.
118. Glick MR, Ryder KW, Jackson SA. Graphical comparisons of interferences in clinical chemistry instrumentation. Clin Chem. 1986;32:470-475.
119. Grafmeyer D, Bondon M, Manchon M, et al. The influence of bilirubin haemolysis and turbidity on 20 analytical tests performed on automatic analysers. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1995;33:31-52.
120. Muller-Plathe O, Heyduck S. Stability of blood gases, electrolytes and haemoglobin in heparinized whole blood samples: influence of the type of syringe. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1992;30:349-355.
121. Burnett RW, Covington AK, Fogh-Andersen N, et al. International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC), Scientific Division, Committee on pH, Blood Gases and Electrolytes: approved IFCC recommendations on whole blood sampling, transport and storage for simultaneous determination of pH, blood gases and electrolytes. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1995;33:247-253.
122. Leroux-Roels G, Offner F, Philippe J, et al. Influence of blood-collecting systems on concentrations of tumor necrosis factor in serum and plasma. Clin Chem. 1988;34:2373-2374.
123. Nygard O, Vollset SM, Refsum H, et al. Total plasma homocysteine and cardiovascular risk profile: the Hordaland homocysteine study. JAMA. 1995;274:1526-1533.