Sedation in the intensive care unit

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 854-866

  Young, Christopher C ^a   Knudsen, Nancy ^a   Hilton, Andrew ^a   Reves, J G ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiolysis; Benzodiazepines; Critical care; Critical illness; Intensive care unit; Lorazepam; Midazolam; Pharmacoeconomics; Propofol; Sedation

Indexed keywords

ALFENTANIL; DIAZEPAM; FENTANYL; LORAZEPAM; MIDAZOLAM; PROPOFOL; REMIFENTANIL;

ANESTHESIA LEVEL; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; COST CONTROL; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENCY; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INTENSIVE CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEDATION;

EID: 0034026779     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200003000-00041     Document Type: Review

References (69)

1. 1. Shapiro B, Warren J, Egol A, et al: Practice parameters for intravenous analgesia and sedation for adult patients in the intensive care unit: An executive summary. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:1596-1600
2. 2. Lewis K, Whipple J, Michael K, et al: Effect of analgesic treatment on the physiological consequences of acute pain. Am J Hosp Pharm 1994; 51:1539-1554
3. 3. Cuthbertson DP: Alterations in metabolism following injury: Part I. Injury 1980; 11: 175-179
4. 4. Bond MR: Psychological and psychiatric aspects of pain. Anaesthesia 1978; 33:355-361
5. 5. Bion JF, Ledingham IM: Sedation in the intensive care - A postal survey. Intensive Care Med 1987; 13:215-216
6. 6. Burns AM, Shelly MP, Park GR: The use of sedative agents in critically ill patients. Drugs 1992; 43:507-515
7. 7. Reves J, Fragen R, Vinik H, et al: Midazolam: Pharmacology and uses. Anesthesiology 1985; 62:310-324
8. 8. Reves J, Glass P, Lubarsky D: Nonbarbiturate intravenous anesthetic drugs. In: Anesthesia. Miller RM (Ed). New York, NY: Churchill Livingston, 1994, pp 247-290
9. 9. Grocott H, Grichnik K, Reves J: Benzodiazepines in cardiovascular surgery. Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1997; 1:109-120
10. 10. Mandema J, Tuk B, van Steveninck A, et al: Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of the central nervous system effects of midazolam and its main metabolite α-hydroxymidazolam in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992; 51:715-728
11. 11. Hiller A, Olkkola K, Isohanni P, et al: Unconsciousness associated with midazolam and erythromycin. Br J Anaesth 1990; 65: 826-828
12. 12. McNulty S, Gratch D, Costello D, et al: The effect of midazolam and lorazepam on postoperative recovery after cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1995; 81:404-407
13. 13. Laine GA, Hossain SM, Solis RT, et al: Polyethylene glycol nephrotoxicity secondary to prolonged high-dose intravenous lorazepam. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29:1110-1114
14. 14. Wagner BKJ, O'Hara DA: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sedatives and analgesics in the treatment of agitated critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997; 33: 426-453
15. 15. Armstrong D, Crisp C: Pharmacoeconomic issues of sedation, analgesia, and neuromuscular blockade in critical care. New Horiz 1994; 2:85-93
16. 16. Malacrida R, Fritz M, Suter P, et al: Pharmacokinetics of midazolam administered by continuous intravenous infusion to intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 1992; 20: 1123-1126
17. 17. Shafer A, Doze V, White P: Pharmacokinetic variability of midazolam infusions in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1990; 18: 1039-1041
18. 18. Albanese J, Martin C, Lacarelle B, et al: Pharmacokinetics of long-term propofol infusion used for sedation in ICU patients. Anesthesiology 1990; 73:214-217
19. 19. Beller JP, Pottecher T, Lugnier A, et al: Prolonged sedation with propofol in ICU patients: Recovery and blood concentration changes during periodic interruptions in infusion. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61:583-588
20. 20. Bailie GR, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, et al: Pharmacokinetics of propofol during and after long term continuous infusion for maintenance of sedation in ICU patients. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68:486-491
21. 21. Hughes M, Glass P, Jacobs J: Context-sensitive half-time in multicompartment pharmacokinetic models for intravenous anesthetic drugs. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 334-341
22. 22. Sjostrom B, Haljamae H, Dahlgren L, et al: Assessment of postoperative pain: Impact of clinical experience and professional role. Acta Anaesth Scand 1997; 41:339-344
23. 23. Marx C, Smith P, Lowrie L, et al: Optimal sedation of mechanically ventilated pediatric critical care patients. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:163-170
24. 24. Ramsay M, Savege T, Simpson B, et al: Controlled sedation with alphaxalone-alphadolone. BMJ 1974; 2:656-659
25. 25. Carrasco G, Molina R, Costa J, et al: Propofol vs midazolam in short-, medium-, and long-term sedation of critically ill patients. Chest 1993; 103:557-564
26. 26. Chamorro C, de Latorre F, Montero A, et al: Comparative study of propofol versus midazolam in the sedation of critically ill patients: Results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:932-939
27. 27. Barrientos-Vega R, Sanchez-Soria M, Morales-Garcia C, et al: Prolonged sedation of critically ill patients with midazolam or propofol: Impact on weaning and costs. Crit Care Med 1997; 25:33-40
28. 28. Mathews H, Carson I, Collier P, et al: Midazolam sedation following open heart surgery. Br J Anaesth 1987; 59:557-560
29. 29. Westphal L, Cheng E, White P, et al: Use of midazolam infusion for sedation following cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 257-262
30. 30. Barvais L, Dejonckheere M, Dernovoi B, et al: Continuous infusion of midazolam or bolus of diazepam for postoperative sedation in cardiac surgical patients. Acta Anaesth Belg 1988; 39:239-245
31. 31. Lowry K, Dundee J, McClean E, et al: Pharmacokinetics of diazepam and midazolam when used for sedation following cardiopulmonary bypass. Br J Anaesth 1985; 57: 883-885
32. 32. Cernaianu A, Del Rossi A, Flum D, et al: Lorazepam and midazolam in the intensive care unit: A randomized, prospective, multicenter study of hemodynamics, oxygen transport, efficacy, and cost. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:222-228
33. 33. Pohlman A, Simpson K, Hall J: Continuous intravenous infusions of lorazepam versus midazolam for sedation during mechanical ventilatory support: A prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 1241-1247
34. 34. Kress J, O'Connor M, Pohlman A, et al: Sedation of critically ill patients during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1012-1018
35. 35. Roekaerts P, Huygen F, de Lange S: Infusion of propofol versus midazolam for sedation in the intensive care unit following coronary artery surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1993; 7:142-147
36. 36. Ronan K, Gallagher T, George B, et al: Comparison of propofol and midazolam for sedation in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:286-293
37. 37. Sherry K, McNamara J, Brown J, et al: An economic evaluation of propofol/fentanyl compared with midazolam/fentanyl on recovery in the ICU following cardiac surgery. Anaesthesia 1996; 51:312-317
38. 38. Snellen F, Lauwers P, Demeyre R, et al: The use of midazolam versus propofol for short-term sedation following coronary artery bypass grafting. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16: 312-316
39. 39. Aitkenhead A, Willatts S, Park G, et al: Comparison of propofol and midazolam for sedation in critically ill patients. Lancet 1989; ii:704-708
40. 40. Chaudri S, Kenny GNC: Sedation after cardiac bypass surgery: Comparison of propofol and midazolam in the presence of a computerized closed loop arterial pressure controller. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68:98-99
41. 41. Beyer R, Seyde WC: Propofol versus midazolam: Long term sedation in the intensive care unit. Anaesthetist 1992; 41:335-341
42. 42. Gilliland H, Prasad B, Mirakhur R, et al: An investigation of the potential morphine sparing effect of midazolam. Anaesthesia 1996; 51:808-811
43. 43. Avramov M, Smith I, White P: Interactions between midazolam and remifentanil during monitored anesthesia care. Anesthesiology 1996; 85:1283-1289
44. 44. Miller D, Blew P, Martineau R, et al: Midazolam and awareness with recall during total intravenous anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43:946-953
45. 45. Taylor E, Ghouri A, White P: Midazolam in combination with propofol for sedation during local anesthesia. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4:213-216
46. 46. McMlune S, McKay AC, Wright MC, et al: Synergistic interaction between midazolam and propofol. Br J Anaesth 1992; 69:240-245
47. 47. Carrasco G, Cabre L, Sobrepere G, et al: Synergistic sedation with propofol and midazolam in intensive care patients after coronary artery bypass grafting. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:844-851
48. 48. Sanchez-Izquierdo-Riera JA, Caballero-Cubedo RE, Perez-Vela JL, et al: Propofol versus midazolam: Safety and efficacy for sedating the severe trauma patient. Anesth Analg 1998; 86:1219-1224
49. 49. Shafer A: Complications of sedation with midazolam in the intensive care unit and a comparison with other sedative regimens. Crit Care Med 1998; 26:947-956
50. 50. Bennett S, McNeil M, Bland L, et al: Postoperative infections traced to contamination of an intravenous anesthetic, propofol. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:147-154
51. 51. Veber B, Gachot B, Bedos J, et al: Severe sepsis after intravenous injection of contaminated propofol. Anesthesiology 1994; 80:712-713
52. 52. Fulton B, Sorkin EM: Propofol. An overview of its pharmacology and a review of its clinical efficacy in intensive care sedation. Drugs 1995; 50:636-657
53. 53. Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Feshchenko VA, et al: The comparative amnestic effects of midazolam, propofol, thiopental, and fentanyl at equisedative concentrations. Anesthesiology 1997; 87:749-764
54. 54. Smith B, Reves J: Computer Assisted Continuous Infusion of Intravenous Anesthesia Drugs. Vol. 33. Boston, Little, Brown and Co, 1995
55. 55. Somma J, Donner A, Zomorodi K, et al: Population pharmacodynamics of midazolam administered by target controlled infusion in SICU patients after CABG surgery. Anesthesiology 1998; 89:1430-1443
56. 56. Jolicoeur L, Jones-Grizzle A, Boyer J: Guidelines for performing a pharmacoeconomic analysis. Am J Hosp Pharm 1992; 49: 1741-1747
57. 57. Sperry RJ: Principles of economic analysis. Anesthesiology 1997; 86:1197-1205
58. 58. Heyland DK, Kernerman P, Gafni A, et al: Economic evaluations in the critical care literature: Do they help us improve the efficiency of our unit? Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 1591-1598
59. 59. Finkler SA: The distinction between cost and charges. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96:102-109
60. 60. Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Zimmermam JE, et al: Variations in mortality and length of stay in intensive care units. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118:753-761
61. 61. Weinbroum AA, Halpern P, Rudick V, et al: Midazolam versus propofol for long term sedation in the ICU: A randomized prospective comparison. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23: 1258-1263
62. 62. Jalilian Tehrani MH, Barnes EM Jr: Sequestration of gamma aminobutyric acid receptors on clathrin-coated vesicles during chronic benzodiazepine administration in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997; 283:384-390
63. 63. Higgins T, Yared J, Estafanous F, et al: Propofol versus midazolam for intensive care unit sedation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 1415-1423
64. 64. Hansen-Flaschen J, Cowen J, Polomano R: Beyond the Ramsay scale: Need for a validated measure of sedating drug efficacy in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:732-733
65. 65. Reves J, Berkowitz D: Pharmacology of intravenous anesthetic induction drugs. In: Cardiac Anesthesia. Kaplan J (Ed). Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1993, pp. 512-534
66. 66. Gelman S, Reves J, Harris D: Circulatory responses to midazolam anesthesia: Emphasis on canine splanchnic circulation. Anesth Analg 1983; 62:135-139
67. 67. Greenblatt D, Divoll M, Harmatz J, et al: Pharmacokinetic comparison of sublingual lorazepam with intravenous, intramuscular and oral lorazepam. J Pharm Sci 1982; 71:248-252
68. 68. Persson P, Nilson A, Hartvig P, et al: Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in total iv anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1987; 59:548-556
69. 69. Klotz U, Reimann I: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction study of diazepam and metoprolol. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 26:223-226