The treatment of epilepsy. A therapeutic guide of the Catalan Society of Neurology;El tratamiento de las epilepsias. Guia terapeutica de la Societat Catalana de Neurologia

Revista de Neurologia

Volumn 29, Issue 8, 1999, Pages 754-766

  Arroyo, S ^a   Campistol, J ^b   Comes, E ^c   Fossas, P ^d   Martinez I ^e   Padro Ll ^f   Ugarte, A ^g   Santamaria, J ^a  

^a HOSPITAL CLÍNIC   (Spain)

^b HOSPITAL SANT JOAN DE DÉU   (Spain)

^c Hospital del Sagrat Cor   (Spain)

^d HOSPITAL DE MATARÓ   (Spain)

^e HOSPITAL MÚTUA DE TERRASSA   (Spain)

^f HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI VALL D HEBRON   (Spain)

^g Hospital de Manresa   (Spain)

Author keywords

Antiepileptic drugs; Epilepsy; Epileptic seizures; Therapeutic guide

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLARMYL; CLOBAZAM; CLONAZEPAM; DIAZEPAM; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETOSUXIMIDA PAES; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; LAMOTRIGINE; MIDAZOLAM; MIDAZOLAM MALEATE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PRIMIDONE; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN;

ANTICONVULSANT THERAPY; ARTICLE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG INDICATION; EPILEPSY; MEDICAL SOCIETY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROPHYLAXIS; SPAIN;

EID: 0033621255     PISSN: 02100010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.33588/rn.2908.99338     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Hauser WA, Hesdorffer DC. Incidence and prevalence. In Hauser WA, Hesdorffer DC, eds. Epilepsy: Frequency, causes and consequences. New York: Demos, 1990: 1-51.
2. Cockerell OC, Johnson AL, Sander JWAS, Hart YM, Goodridge DMG, Shorvon SD. Mortality from epilepsy: results from a prospective population-based study. Lancet 1995; 344: 918-21.
3. Heinz ER, Heinz TR, Radtke R, et al. Efficacy of MR vs CT in epilepsy. Am J Neuroradiol 1988; 9: 1123-8.
4. Anonymous. Consensus statements: medical management of epilepsy. Neurology 1998; 51: S39-S43
5. Cockerell OC, Johnson AL, Sander JW, Hart YM, Shorvon SD. Remission of epilepsy: results from the National General Practice Study of Epilepsy. Lancet 1995; 346: 140-4.
6. Shinnar S, Vining EPG, Mellits ED, et al. Discontinuing antiepileptic medication in children with epilepsy after two years without seizures. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 976-80.
7. Berg AT, Shinnar S. Relapse following discontinuation of antiepileptic drugs: a meta-analysis. Neurology 1994; 44: 601-8.
8. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 389-9.
9. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1985; 26: 268-78.
10. Loscher W. New visions in the pharmacology of anticonvulsion. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 342: 1-13.
11. De Santis A, Baratta P, Bello L, et al. Early postoperative seizures and endovenous phenytoin. Preliminary clinical data. J Neurosurg Sci 1996; 40: 207-12.
12. Kuijlen JM, Teernstra OP, Kessels AG, Herpers MJ, Beuls EA. Effectiveness of antiepileptic prophylaxis used with supratentorial craniotomies: a meta-analysis. Seizure 1996; 5: 291-8.
13. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, Keihm J, Chabal S, Winn HR. A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 497-502.
14. Hauser WA. Prevention of post-traumatic epilepsy. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 540-2.
15. Schierhout G, Roberts I. Prophylactic antiepileptic agents after head injury: a systematic review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64: 108-12.
16. Glantz MJ, Cole BF, Friedberg MH, et al. A randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trial of divalproex sodium prophylaxis in adults with newly diagnosed brain tumors. Neurology 1996; 46: 985-91.
17. Arbpix A, García-Eroles L, Massons JB, Oliveres M, Cornes E. Predictive factors of early seizures after acute cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1997; 28: 1590-4.
18. So EL, Annegers JF, Hauser WA, O'Brien PC, Whisnant JP. Population-based study of seizure disorders after cerebral infarction. Neurology 1996; 46: 350-5.
19. Gilad R, Lampl Y, Gabbay U, Eshel Y, Sarova Pinhas I. Early treatment of a single generalized tonic-clonic seizure to prevent recurrence. Arch Neurol 1996; 53: 1149-52.
20. Chandra B. First seizure in adults: to treat or not to treat. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1992; 94 (Suppl): S61-3.
21. Camfield P, Camfield C, Dooley J, Smith E, Garner B. A randomized study of carbamazepine versus no medication after a first unprovoked seizure in childhood. Neurology 1989; 39: 851-2.
22. Camfield C, Camfield P, Gordon K, Dooley J. Does the number of seizures before treatment influence ease of control or remission of childhood epilepsy? Not if the number is 10 or less. Neurology 1996; 46: 41-4.
23. Goodridge DMG, Shorvon SD. Epileptic seizures in a population of 6000. I: Demography, diagnosis and classification and the role of the hospital services. Br Med J 1983; 287: 641-4.
24. Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Elveback LR. Remission of seizures and relapse in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1979; 20: 729-37.
25. Camfield PR. Recurrent seizures in the developing brain are not harmful. Epilepsia 1997; 38: 735-7.
26. Devinsky O. Cognitive and behavioral effects of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (Suppl 2): S46-65.
27. Hauser WA, Rich SS, Annegers JF, Anderson VE. Seizure recurrence after a first unprovoked seizure: an extended follow-up. Neurology 1990; 40: 1163-70.
28. Hart YM, Sander JW, Johnson AL, Shorvon SD. National General Practice Study of Epilepsy: recurrence after a first seizure. Lancet 1990; 336: 1271-4.
29. Elwes RD, Chesterman P, Reynolds EH. Prognosis after a first untreated tonic-clonic seizure. Lancet 1985; 2: 752-3.
30. Camfield PR, Camfield CS, Dooley JM, Tibbles JA, Fung T, Garner B. Epilepsy after a first unprovoked seizure in childhood. Neurology 1985; 35: 1657-60.
31. Hauser WA, Rich SS, Jacobs MP, Anderson VE. Patterns of seizure occurrence and recurrence risks in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. Epilepsia 1983; 24: 516-7.
32. Aminoff MJ. Do nonconvulsive seizures damage the brain? No. Arch Neurol 1998; 55: 119-20.
33. Campistol J. Cuándo debe iniciarse el tratamiento antiepiléptico crónico. Rev Neurol 1997; 25: 350-5.
34. Cranford RE, Leppik IE, Patrick B, Anderson CB, Kostick B. Intravenous phenytoin in acute treatment of seizures. Neurology 1979; 29: 1474-9.
35. Lesser RP, Pippenger CE, Lüders HO, Dinner DS. High-dose monotherapy in treatment of intractable seizures. Neurology 1984; 34: 707-11.
36. Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF. Prognosis for total control of complex partial and secondarily generalized tonic clonic seizures. Department of Veterans Affairs Epilepsy Cooperative Studies No. 118 and No. 264 Group. Neurology 1996; 47: 68-76.
37. Schmidt D, Richter K. Alternative single anticonvulsant drug therapy for refractory epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1986; 19: 85-7.
38. Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF, et al. Comparison of carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and primidone in partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 145-51.
39. Schmidt D. Reduction of two-drug therapy in intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 1983; 24: 368-76.
40. Morris JC, Dodson WE, Hatlelid JM, Ferrandelli JA. Phenytoin and carbamazepine alone and in combination: anticonvulsant and neurotoxic effects. Neurology 1987; 37: 1111-8.
41. Heller AJ, Chesterman P, Elwes RDC, et al. Phenobarbitone, phenytoin, carbamazepine, or sodium valproate for newly diagnosed adult epilepsy: a randomised comparative monotherapy trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 44-50.
42. Richens A, Davidson DL, Cartlidge NE, Easter DJ. A multicentre comparative trial of sodium valproate and carbamazepine in adult onset epilepsy. Adult EPITEG Collaborative Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 682-7.
43. Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF. A comparison of valproate with carbamazepine for the treatment of complex partial seizures and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults. The Department of Veterans Affairs Epilepsy Cooperative Study N.o264 Group. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 765-71.
44. Troupin A, Moretti-Ojemman L, Halpern L, et al. Carbamazepine-A double-blind comparison with phenytoin. Neurology 1977; 27: 511-9.
45. Brodie MJ, Richens A, Yuen AW. Double-blind comparison of lamotrigine and carbamazepine in newly diagnosed epilepsy. UK Lamotrigine/Carbamazepine Monotherapy Trial Group. Lancet 1995; 345: 476-9.
46. Gilliam F, Vazquez B, Sackellares JC, et al. An active-control trial of lamotrigine monotherapy for partial seizures. Neurology 1998; 51: 1018-25.
47. Kalviainen R, Aikia M, Saukkonen AM, Mervaala E, Riekkinen PJS. Vigabatrin vs carbamazepine monotherapy in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. A randomized, controlled study. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 989-96.
48. Tanganelli P, Regesta G. Vigabatrin vs carbamazepine monotheraphy in newly diagnosed focal epilepsy. A randomised response conditional cross-over study. Epilepsy Res 1996; 25: 257-62.
49. Chadwick DW, Anhut H, Greiner MJ, et al. A double-blind trial of gabapentin monotherapy for newly diagnosed partial seizures. International Gabapentin Monotherapy Study Group 945- 77. Neurology 1998; 51: 1282-8.
50. Marson AG, Kadir ZA, Chadwick DW. New antiepileptic drugs: a systematic review of their efficacy and tolerability. Br Med J 1996; 313: 1169-74.
51. Campistol J, Geli M, Llistosella E, Molins J, Llobet M. Síndrome de Stevens-Johnson tras la introducción de lamotrigina. Rev Neurol 1995; 23: 1236-8.
52. Sachs B, Ronnau AC, von Schmiedeberg S, Ruzicka T, Gleichmann E, Schuppe HC. Lamotrigine-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome: demonstration of specific lymphocyte reactivity in vitro. Dermatology 1997; 195: 60-4.
53. Krauss GL, Johnson MA, Miller NR. Vigabatrin-associated retinal cone system dysfunction: electroretinogram and ophthalmologic findings. Neurology 1998; 50: 614-8.
54. Messenheimer J, Mullens EL, Giorgi L, Young F. Safety review of adult clinical trial experience with lamotrigine. Drug Saf 1998; 18: 281-96.
55. Arnon R, DeVivo D, Defelice AR, Kazlow PG. Acute hepatic failure in a child treated with lamotrigine. Pediatr Neurol 1998; 18: 251-2.
56. Bjoro K, Gjerstad L, Bentdal O, Osnes S, Schrumpf E. Topiramate and fulminant liver failure Lancet 1998; 352: 1119
57. Cochrane HC, Marson AG, Baker GA, Chadwick DW. Neuropsychological outcomes in randomized controlled trials of antiepileptic drugs: a systematic review of methodology and reporting standards. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 1088-97.
58. Keranen T, Sillanpaa M, Riekkinen PJ. Distribution of seizure types in an epileptic population. Epilepsia 1988; 29: 1-7.
59. Chadwick DW. An overview of the efficacy and tolerability of new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1997; 38 (Suppl 1): S59-62.
60. Verety CM, Hosking G, Easter DJ. A multicentre comparative trial of sodium valproate and carbamazepine in paediatric epilepsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1995; 37: 97-108.
61. Isojarvi JI, Rattya J, Myllyla VV, et al. Valproate, lamotrigine, and insulin-mediated risks in women with epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1998; 43: 446-51.
62. Isojärvi JT, Laatikainen TJ, Knip M, Pakarinen AJ, Juntunen KTS, Myllylä VV. Obesity and endocrine disorders in women taking valproate for epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 579-84.
63. Page RL, O'Neil MG, Yarbrough DR, Conradi S. Fatal toxic epidermal necrolysis related to lamotrigine administration. Pharmacotherapy. 1998; 18: 392-8.
64. Iannetti P, Raucci U, Zuccaro P, Pacifici R. Lamotrigine hypersensitivity in childhood epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 502-7.
65. Biton V. Preliminary open-label experience with topiramate in primary generalized seizures. Epilepsia 1997; 38 (Suppl 1): S42-4.
66. Jeavons PM, Clark JE, Maheshwari MC. Treatment of generalized epilepsies of childhood and adolescence with sodium valproate ('epilim'). Dev Med Child Neurol 1977; 19: 9-25.
67. Sato S, White BG, Penry JK, Dreifuss FE, Sackellares JC, Kupferberg HJ. Valproic acid versus ethosuximide in the treatment of absence seizures. Neurology 1982; 32: 157-63.
68. Currier RD, Kooi KA, Saidman LJ. Prognosis of pure petit mal. Neurology 1963; 13: 959-67.
69. Beran RG, Berkovic SF, Dunagan FM, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of lamotrigine in treatment-resistant generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 1329-33.
70. Robertson MM. Current status of the 1,4- and 1,5-benzodiazepines in the treatment of epilepsy: the place of clobazam. Epilepsia 1986; 27 Suppl 1: S27-41.
71. Parker AP, Agathonikou A, Robinson RO, Panayiotopoulos CP. Inappropriate use of carbamazepine and vigabatrin in typical absence seizures. Dev Med Child Neurol 1998; 40: 517-9.
72. Trudeau V, Myers S, LaMoreaux L, Anhut H, Garofalo E, Ebersole J. Gabapentin in naive childhood absence epilepsy: results from two double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter studies. J Child Neurol 1996; 11: 470-5.
73. Koskiniemi M, van Vleymen B, Hakamies L, Lamusuo S, Taalas J. Piracetam relieves symptoms in progressive myoclonus epilepsy: a multicentre, randomised, double blind, crossover study comparing the efficacy and safety of three dosages of oral piracetam with placebo. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64: 344-8.
74. Wallace SJ. Myoclonus and epilepsy in childhood: a review of treatment with valproate, ethosuximide, lamotrigine and zonisamide. Epilepsy Res 1998; 29: 147-54.
75. Delgado-Escueta AV, Enrile-Bacsal F. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy of Janz. Neurology 1984; 34: 285-94.
76. Panayiotopoulos CP, Obeid T, Tahan AR. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: a 5-year prospective study. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 285-96.
77. Buchanan N. The use of lamotrigine in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Seizure. 1996; 5: 149-51.
78. Guerrini R, Dravet C, Genton P, Belmonte A, Kaminska A, Dulac O. Lamotrigine and seizure aggravation in severe myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 508-12.
79. Motte J, Trevathan E, Arvidsson JF, Barrera MN, Mullens EL, Manasco P. Lamotrigine for generalized seizures associated with the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Lamictal Lennox-Gastaut Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1807-12.
80. Anonymous. Efficacy of felbamate in childhood epileptic encephalopathy (Lennox-Gastaut syndrome). The Felbamate Study Group in Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 29-33.
81. Glauser TA, Sachdeo RC, Ritter FJ, Reife R, Lim P. Topiramate YL study Group. Topiramate in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a double-blind trial. Neurology 1997; 48: 1729.
82. Luna D, Dulac O, Pajot N, Beaumont D. Vigabatrin in the treatment of childhood epilepsies: a single-blind placebo-controlled study. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 430-7.
83. Feucht M, Brantner-Inthaler S. Gamma-vinyl-GABA (vigabatrin) in the therapy of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: an open study. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 993-8.
84. Vossler DG. Exacerbation of seizures in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome by gabapentin. Neurology 1996; 46: 852-3.
85. Snead OC, Hosey LC. Exacerbation of seizures in children by carbamazepine. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 916-21.
86. Wohlrab G, Boltshauser E, Schmitt B. Vigabatrin as a first-line drug in West syndrome: clinical and electroencephalographic outcome. Neuropediatrics 1998; 29: 133-6.
87. Rufo M, Santiago C, Castro E, Ocaña O. Uso de monoterapia con vigabatrina en el tratamiento del síndrome de West. Rev Neurol 1997; 25: 1365-8.
88. Vigevano F, Cilio MR. Vigabatrin versus ACTH as first-line treatment for infantile spasms: a randomized, prospective study. Epilepsia 1997; 38: 1270-4.
89. Chiron C, Dumas C, Jambaque I, Mumford J, Dulac O. Randomized trial comparing vigabatrin and hydrocortisone in infantile spasms due to tuberous sclerosis. Epilepsy Res 1997; 26: 389-95.
90. Takuma Y. ACTH therapy for infantile spasms: a combination therapy with high-dose pyridoxal phosphate and low-dose ACTH. Epilepsia 1998; 39 Suppl 5: 42-5: 42-5.
91. Haines ST, Casto DT. Treatment of infantile spasms. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 779-91.
92. Snead OC, Benton JW, Myers GJ. ACTH and prednisone in childhood seizure disorders. Neurology 1983; 33: 966-70.
93. Dyken PR, DuRant RH, Minden DB, King DW. Short term effects of valproate on infantile spasms. Pediatr Neurol 1985; 1: 34-7.
94. Berg AT, Shinnar S, Hauser WA, et al. A prospective study of recurrent febrile seizures. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1122-7.
95. Shinnar S, Berg AT, Moshe SL, et al. The risk of seizure recurrence after a first unprovoked afebrile seizure in childhood: an extended follow-up. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 216-25.
96. Kolfen W, Pehle K, Konig S. Is the long-term outcome of children following febrile convulsions favorable? Dev Med Child Neurol 1998; 40: 667-71.
97. Rantala H, Tarkka R, Uhari M. A meta-analytic review of the preventive treatment of recurrences of febrile seizures. J Pediatr 1997; 131: 922-5.
98. Rosman NP, Colton T, Labazz J, et al. A controlled trial of diacepam administered during febrile illnesses to prevent recurrence of febrile seizures. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 79-84.
99. Autret E, Billard C, Bertrand P, Motte J, Pouplard F, Jonville AP. Double-blind, randomized trial of diacepam versus placebo for prevention of recurrence of febrile seizures. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 490-4.
100. Camfield P, Camfield C. Diacepam to prevent febrile seizures. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 2034
101. Berg AT, Shinnar S. Complex febrile seizures. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 126-33.
102. Maytal J, Shinnar S. Febrile status epilepticus. Pediatrics 1990; 86: 611-6.
103. Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 970-6.
104. Hesdorffer DC, Logroscino G, Cascino G, Annegers JF, Hauser WA. Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965-1984. Neurology 1998; 50: 735-41.
105. DeLorenzo RJ, Hauser WA, Towne AR, et al. A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia. Neurology 1996; 46: 1029-35.
106. Willmore LJ. Epilepsy emergencies: the first seizure and status epilepticus. Neurology 1998; 51: S34-8
107. Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, Futterman C, Young GM, Ochsenschlager DW, Waisman Y. A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diacepam for the treatment of seizures in children. Pediatr Emerg Care 1997; 13: 92-4.
108. Ramsay RE, DeToledo J. Intravenous administration of fosphenytoin: options for the management of seizures. Neurology 1996; 46: S17-9.
109. Honack D, Loscher W. Intravenous valproate: onset and duration of anticonvulsant activity against a series of electroconvulsions in comparison with diacepam and phenytoin. Epilepsy Res 1992; 13: 215-21.
110. Lal-Koul R, Raj-Aithala G, Chacko A, Joshi R, Seif-Elbualy M. Continuous midazolam infusion as treatment of status epilepticus. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76: 445-8.
111. Rivera R, Segnini M, Baltodano A, Perez V. Midazolam in the treatment of status epilepticus in children. Critical Care Medicine 1993; 21: 991-4.
112. Brown LA, Levin GM. Role of propofol in refractory status epilepticus. Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32: 1053-9.
113. Leppik IE. Status epilepticus. Neurol Clin 1986; 4: 633-43.
114. Litt B, Wityk RJ, Hertz SH, et al. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in the critically ill elderly. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 1194-202.
115. Treiman DM. The role of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus. Neurology 1990; 40: 32-42.
116. Andermann F, Robb JP. Absence status: A reappraisal following review of thirty-eight patients. Epilepsia 1972; 13: 177-87.
117. Cascino GD. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in adults and children. Epilepsia 1993; 34 (Suppl 1): S21-8
118. Browne TR, Dreifuss FE, Dyken PR, et al. Ethosuximide in the treatment of absence (peptit mal) seizures. Neurology 1975; 25: 515-24.
119. Crouteau D, Shevell M, Rosenblatt B, Dilenge ME, Andermann F. Treatment of absence status in the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome with propofol. Neurology 1998; 51: 315-6.
120. Frey OR, von Brenndorff AI, Probst W. Comparison of phenytoin serum concentrations in premature neonates following intravenous and oral administration. Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32: 300-3.
121. Fischer JH, Lockman LA, Zaske D, Kriel R. Phenobarbital maintenance dose requirements in treating neonatal seizures. Neurology 1981; 31: 1042-4.
122. Sánchez-Alcaraz A, Quintana MB, López E, Rodríguez I. Valproic acid clearance in children with epilepsy. J Clin Pharm Ther 1998; 23: 31-4.
123. Anonymous. American Academy of Pediatrics. Behavioral and cognitive effects of anticonvulsant therapy. Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 1985; 76: 644-7.
124. Schlieriger RG, Shapiro LE, Shear NH. Lamotrigine-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions. Epilepsia 1998; 39 (Suppl 7): S22-6.
125. Dreifuss FE, Langer DH. Hepatic considerations in the use of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1987; 28 (Suppl 2): S23-9.
126. De la Court A, Breteler MMB, Meinardi H, Hauser WA, Hofman A. Prevalence of epilepsy in the elderly: the Rotterdam study. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 141-7.
127. Rowan AJ. Reflections on the treatment of seizures in the elderly population. Neurology 1998; 51: S28-33
128. Willmore LJ. The effect of age on pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (Suppl 5): S14-21: S14-21
129. Willmore LJ. Management of epilepsy in the elderly. Epilepsia 1996; 37 (Suppl 6): S23-33.
130. Cameron H, Macphee GJ. Anticonvulsant therapy in the elderly, a need for placebo controlled trials. Epilepsy Res 1995; 21: 149-57.
131. Binder L, Trujillo J, Parker D, Cuetter A. Association of intravenous phenytoin toxicity with demographic, clinical, and dosing parameters. Am J Emerg Med 1996; 14: 398-401.
132. Thomas RJ. Seizures and epilepsy in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 605-17.
133. Callaghan N, Kenny RA, O'Neill B, Crowley M, Goggin T. A prospective study between carbamazepine, phenytoin and sodium valproate as monotherapy in previously untreated and recently diagnosed patients with epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 639-44.
134. Schlumberger E, Chavez F, Palacios L, Rey E, Pajot N, Dulac O. Lamotrigine in treatment of 120 children with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 359-67.
135. Timmings PL, Richens A. Lamotrigine as an add-on drug in the management of Lennox- Gastaut syndrome. Eur Neurol 1992; 32: 305-7.
136. Sabers A, Rogvi-Hansen B, Dam M, et al. Pregnancy and epilepsy: a retrospective study of 151 pregnancies. Acta Neurol Scand 1998; 97: 164-70.
137. Anonymous. Practice parameter: management issues for women with epilepsy (summary statement). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 1998; 51: 944-8.
138. Tomson T, Lidbom U, Ekqvist B, Sundqvist A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: a prospective study of seizure control in relation to free and total plasma concentrations of carbamazepine and phenytoin. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 122-30.
139. Schmidt D, Ganger R, Avanzini G. Change in seizure frequency in pregnant epileptic women. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983; 46: 751-5.
140. Zahn CA, Morrell MJ, Collins SD, Labiner DM, Yerby MS. Management issues for women with epilepsy: a review of the literature. Neurology 1998; 51: 949-56.
141. Delgado-Escueta AV, Janz D. Consensus guidelines: preconception counseling, management, and care of the pregnant woman with epilepsy. Neurology 1992; 42 (Suppl 5): 149-60.
142. Abdulrazzaq YM, Bastaki SM, Padmanabhan R. Teratogenic effects of vigabatrin in TO mouse fetuses. Teratology 1997; 55: 165-76.
143. Jones MW. Topiramate, safety and tolerability. Can J Neurol Sci 1998; 25: S13-5
144. Eller DP, Patterson CA, Webb GW. Maternal and fetal implications of anticonvulsive therapy during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 523-34.
145. Kishi T, Fujita N, Eguchi T, Ueda K. Mechanism for reduction of serum folate by antiepileptic drugs during prolonged therapy. J Neurol Sci 1997; 145: 109-12.
146. Hendel J, Dam M, Gram L, Winkel P, Jorgensen I. The effects of carbamazepine and valproate on folate metabolism in man. Acta Neurol Scand 1984; 69: 226-31.
147. Comelissen M, Steegers-Theunissen R, Kollee L, Eskes T, Motohara K, Monnens L. Supplementation of vitamin K in pregnant women receiving anticonvulsant therapy prevents neonatal vitamin K deficiency. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 884-8.
148. Zahn C. Neurologic care of pregnant women with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998; 39 (Suppl 8): S26-31.
149. Tran A, O'Mahoney T, Rey E, Mai J, Mumford JP, Olive G. Vigabatrin: placental transfer in vivo and excretion into breast milk of the enantiomers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 45: 409-11.
150. Handforth A, DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized active-control trial. Neurology 1998; 51: 48-55.
151. Freeman JM, Vining EPG, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL, Casey JC, Kelly LMT. The efficacy of the ketogenic diet-1998: A prospective evaluation of intervention in 150 children. Pediatrics 1998; 102: 1358-63.
152. Vining EP, Freeman JM, Ballaban-Gil K, et al. A multicenter study of the efficacy of the ketogenic diet. Arch Neurol 1998; 55: 1433-7.
153. Engel J Jr. Surgery for seizures. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 647-52.
154. Arroyo S. Surgery for epilepsy: evaluation and indication. Neurologia 1996; 11 (Suppl 4): 122-8.
155. Arroyo S, Freeman JM. Epilepsy surgery in children: state of the art. Adv Pediatr 1994; 41: 53-81.
156. Engel J, Jr. Epilepsy surgery. Curr Opin Neurol 1994; 7: 140-7.
157. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 1981; 22: 489-501.
158. Parent JM, Lowenstein H. Treatment of refractory generalized status epilepticus with continuous infusion of midazolam. Neurology 1994; 44: 1837-40.