Recombinant vaccinia viruses: Design, generation, and isolations

Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology - Part B Molecular Biotechnology

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 223-245

  Broder, Christopher C ^a   Earl, Patricia L ^b  

^a UNIFORMED SERVICES UNIVERSITY OF THE HEALTH SCIENCES   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

Biotechnology methods; Gene expression; Genetic vectors; Proteins biosynthesis; Recombinant proteins; Recombination; Selection genetics; Transfection; Vaccinia virus

Indexed keywords

GENE PRODUCT; PLASMID VECTOR;

ARTICLE; BIOTECHNOLOGY; DNA HYBRIDIZATION; GENE AMPLIFICATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC TRANSFECTION; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; NONHUMAN; VACCINIA VIRUS; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS ISOLATION; VIRUS PURIFICATION; VIRUS RECOMBINANT; VIRUS TITRATION;

ANIMALIA; DNA VIRUSES; EUKARYOTA; POXVIRIDAE; PROKARYOTA; VACCINIA; VACCINIA VIRUS;

ANIMALS; DISEASES; GENE EXPRESSION; RECOMBINANT PROTEINS; VACCINES;

ANIMAL MODEL; DOUBLE STRANDED DNA; GENETIC ELEMENTS; INFECTIOUS DISEASE; INSTRUMENTAL TOOLS; RECOMBINANT GENE EXPRESSIONS; VACCINIA VIRUS; VIRAL VECTORS;

VIRUSES;

EID: 0033573545     PISSN: 10736085     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1385/mb:13:3:223     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. 1. Carroll, M. W. and Moss, B. (1997) Poxviruses as expression vectors. Curr. Opin .Biotechnol. 8, 573-577.
2. 2. Flexner, C. and Moss, B. 1997. Vaccinia virus as a live vector for expression of immunogens. 2nd ed. In New Generation Vaccines (Levine, M. M., Woodrow, G. C., Kaper, J. B., and Cobon, G. S., eds.) Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 297-314.
3. 3. Paoletti, E. (1996) Applications of pox virus vectors to vaccination: an update. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 11349-11353.
4. 4. Moss, B. (1996) Genetically engineered poxviruses for recombinant gene expression, vaccination, and safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 11341-11348.
5. 5. Moss, B. (1994) Replicating and Host-Restricted Non-Replicating Vaccinia Virus Vectors for Vaccine Development. Dev. Biol. Stand. 82, 55-63.
6. 6. Moss, B. (1993) Poxvirus Vectors: Cytoplasmic Expression of Transferred Genes. Curr. Opin. Gen. Dev. 3, 86-90.
7. 7. Moss, B. (1991) Vaccinia virus: A Tool for Research and Vaccine Development. Science 252, 1662-1667.
8. 8. Smith, G. L. (1991) Vaccinia Virus Vectors for Gene Expression. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2, 713-717.
9. 9. Smith, G. L. and Mackett, M. 1992. The design, construction, and use of vaccinia virus recombinants. In Recombinant Poxviruses (Binns, M. M. and Smith, G. L., eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 81-122.
10. 10. Cox, W. I., Tartaglia, J., and Paoletti, E. 1992. Poxvirus recombinants as live vaccines. In Recombinant Poxviruses (Binns, M. M. and Smith, G. L., eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 123-162.
11. 11. Fenner, F. 1992. Vaccinia virus as a vaccine, and poxvirus pathogenesis. In Recombinant Poxviruses (Binns, M. M. and Smith, G. L., eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 1-43.
12. 12. Mackett, M. (1991) Manipulation of Vaccinia Virus Vectors. Gene Transfer and Expression Protocols 7, 129-146.
13. 13. Earl, P. and Moss, B. (1991) Generation of Recombinant Vaccinia Viruses. In Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausubel, F. M., Brent, R., Kingston, R. E., Moore, D. D., Seidman, J. G., Smith, J.A., and Struhl, K., eds.) Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp. 16.15.1-16.18.10.
14. 14. Talavera, A. and Rodriguez, J. M. (1991) Isolation and Handling of Recombinant Vaccinia Viruses. Practical Mol. Virol. 8, 235-248.
15. 15. Moss, B. (1990) Poxviridae and their replication. In Virology (Fields, B. N., Knipe, D. M., Chanock, R. M., Hirsch, M. S., Melnick, J. L., Monath, T. P., and Roizman, B., eds.) Raven Press, New York, pp. 2079-2111.
16. 16. Moss, B. (1992) Molecular biology of poxviruses. In Recombinant Poxviruses (Binns, M. M. and Smith, G. L., eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 45-80.
17. 17. Moss, B. (1994) Vaccinia Virus Transcription. In Transcription: Mechanisms and Regulation (Conaway, R. C. and Conaway, J. W., eds.) Raven Press, New York, pp. 185-205.
18. 18. Mackett, M., Smith, G. L., and Moss, B. (1982) Vaccinia virus: a selectable eukaryotic cloning and expression vector. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79, 7415-7419.
19. 19. Panicali, D. and Paoletti, E. (1982) Construction of Poxviruses as Cloning Vectors: Insertion of the Thymidine Kinase Gene from Herpes Simplex Virus into the DNA of Infectious Vaccinia Virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79, 4927-4931.
20. 20. Dimitrov, D. S., Norwood, D., Stantchev, T. S., Feng, Y., Xiao, X., and Broder, C. C. (1999) A Mechanism of Resistance to HIV-1 Entry: Inefficient Interactions of CXCR4 with CD4 and gp120 in Macrophages. Virology 259, 1-6.
21. 21. Fuerst, T. R., Niles, E. G., Studier, F. W., and Moss, B. (1986) Eukaryotic transient-expression system based on recombinant vaccinia virus that synthesizes bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 8122-8126.
22. 22. Fuerst, T. R., Earl, P. L., and Moss, B. (1987) Use of a hybrid vaccinia virus-T7 RNA polymerase system for expression of target genes. Mol. Cell Biol. 7, 2538-2544.
23. 23. Elroy-Stein, O. and Moss, B. (1992) Gene expression using the vaccinia virus/T7 RNA polymerase hybrid system. In Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, (Ausubel, F.M., Brent, R., Kingston, R. E., Moore, D. D., Seidman, J. G., Smith, J. A., Struhl, K., eds.) Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 16.19.1-16.19.12.
24. 24. Rodriguez, D., Zhou, Y., Rodriguez, J.-R., Durbin, R. K., Jiminez, V., McAllister, W. T., and Esteban, M. (1990) Regulated expression of nuclear genes by T3 RNA polymerase and lac represser, using recombinant vaccinia virus vectors. J. Virol. 64, 4851-4857.
25. 25. Usdin, T. B., Brownstein, M. J., Moss, B., and Isaacs, S. N. (1993) SP6 RNA polymerase containing vaccinia virus for rapid expression of cloned genes in tissue culture. Biotechniques 14, 222-224.
26. 26. Fuerst, T. R., Fernandez, M. P., and Moss, B. (1989) Transfer of the inducible lac repressor/operator system from Escherichia coli to a vaccinia virus expression vector. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 2549-2553.
27. 27. Rodriguez, J. F. and Smith, G. L. (1990) Inducible gene expression from vaccinia virus vectors. Virology 177, 239-250.
28. 28. Alexander, W. A., Moss, B., and Fuerst, T. R. (1992) Regulated expression of foreign genes in vaccinia virus under the control of bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase and the Escherichia coli lac. repressor. J. Virol. 66, 2934-2942.
29. 29. Ward, G. A., Stover, C. K., Moss, B., and Fuerst, T. R. (1995) Stringent chemical and thermal regulation of recombinant gene expression by vaccinia virus vectors in mammalian cells. Proc. Natl .Acad. Sci. USA 92, 6773-6777.
30. 30. Cullen, B. R. and Garrett, E. D. (1992) A comparison of regulatory features in primate lentiviruses. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 8, 387-393.
31. 31. Stomatos, N., Chakrabarti, S., Moss, B., and Hare, D. J. (1987) Expression of polyomavirus virion proteins by a vaccinia virus vector: association of VP1 and VP2 with the nuclear framework. J. Virol. 61, 516-525.
32. 32. Perkus, M. E., Tartaglia, J., and Paoletti, E. (1995) Poxvirus-based vaccine candidates for cancer, AIDS, and other infectious diseases. J. Leukoc. Biol. 58, 1-13.
33. 33. Rosenberg, S. A. (1997) Cancer vaccines based on the identification of genes encoding cancer regression antigens. Immunol. Today 18, 175-182.
34. 34. Sutter, G. and Moss, B. (1992) Nonreplicating vaccinia vector efficiently expresses recombinant genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10847-10851.
35. 35. Meyer, H., Sutter, G., and Mayr, A. (1991) Mapping of Deletions in the Genome of the Highly Attenuated Vaccinia Virus MVA and Their Influence on Virulence. J. Gen. Virol. 72, 1031-1038.
36. 36. Drexler, I., Heller, K., Wahren, B., Erfle, V., and Sutter, G. (1998) Highly attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara replicates in baby hamster kidney cells, a potential host for virus propagation, but not in various human transformed and primary cells. J. Gen. Virol. 79, 347-352.
37. 37. Carroll, M. W. and Moss, B. (1997) Host range and cytopathogenicity of the highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus: propagation and generation of recombinant viruses in a nonhuman mammalian cell line. Virology 238, 198-211.
38. 38. Tartaglia, J., Perkus, M. E., Taylor, J., Norton, E. K., Audonnet, J. C., Cox, W. I., Davis, S. W., van der Hoeven, J., Meignier, B., and Riviere, M., et al. (1992) NYVAC: a highly attenuated strain of vaccinia virus. Virology 188, 217-232.
39. 39. Hirsch, V. M., Fuerst, T. R., Sutter, G., Carroll, M. W., Yang, L. C., Goldstein, S., Piatak, M., Jr., Elkins, W. R., Alvord, W. G., Montefiori, D. C., Moss, B., and Lifson, J. D. (1996) Patterns of viral replication correlate with outcome in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected macaques: effect of prior immunization with a trivalent SIV vaccine in modified vaccinia virus Ankara. J. Virol. 70, 3741-3752.
40. 40. Sutter, G., Wyatt, L. S., Foley, P. L., Bennink, J. R., and Moss, B. (1994) A recombinant vector derived from the host range-restricted and highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus stimulates protective immunity in mice to influenza virus. Vaccine 12, 1032-1040.
41. 41. Schneider, J., Gilbert, S. C., Blanchard, T. J., Hanke, T., Robson, K. J., Hannan, C. M., Becker, M., Sinden, R., Smith, G. L., and Hill, A. V. (1998) Enhanced immunogenicity for CD8+ T cell induction and complete protective efficacy of malaria DNA vaccination by boosting with modified vaccinia virus Ankara. Nat. Med. 4, 397-402.
42. 42. Welter, J., Taylor, J., Tartaglia, J., Paoletti, E., and Stephensen, C. B. (1999) Mucosal vaccination with recombinant poxvirus vaccines protects ferrets against symptomatic CDV infection. Vaccine 17, 308-318.
43. 43. Leno, M., Carter, L., Venzon, D. J., Romano, J., Markham, P. D., Limbach, K., Tartaglia, J., Paoletti, E., Benson, J., Franchini, G., and Robert-Guroff, M. (1999) CD8+ lymphocyte antiviral activity in monkeys immunized with SIV recombinant poxvirus vaccines: potential role in vaccine efficacy (In Process Citation). AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 15, 461-470.
44. 44. Brockmeier, S. I., Lager, K. M., and Mengeling, W. L. (1997) Successful pseudorabies vaccination in maternally immune piglets using recombinant vaccinia virus vaccines. Res. Vet. Sci. 62, 281-285.
45. 45. Benson, J., Chougnet, C., Robert-Guroff, M., Montefiori, D., Markham, P., Shearer, G., Gallo, R. C., Cranage, M., Paoletti, E., Limbach, K., Venzon, D., Tartaglia, J., and Franchini, G. (1998) Recombinant vaccine-induced protection against the highly pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus SIV(mac251): dependence on route of challenge exposure. J. Virol. 72, 4170-4182.
46. 46. Franchini, G., Benson, J., Gallo, R., Paoletti, E., and Tartaglia, J. (1996) Attenuated poxvirus vectors as carriers in vaccines against human T cell leukemia-lymphoma virus type I. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12, 407-408.
47. 47. Franchini, G., Robert-Guroff, M., Tartaglia, J., Aggarwal, A., Abimiku, A., Benson, J., Markham, P., Limbach, K., Hurteau, G., and Fullen, J., et al. (1995) Highly attenuated HIV type 2 recombinant poxviruses, but not HIV-2 recombinant Salmonella vaccines, induce long-lasting protection in rhesus macaques. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 11, 909-920.
48. 48. Nam, J. H., Wyatt, L. S., Chae, S. L., Cho, H. W., Park, Y. K. and Moss, B. (1999) Protection against lethal Japanese encephalitis virus infection of mice by immunization with the highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus expressing JEV prM and E genes. Vaccine 17, 261-288.
49. 49. Durbin, A. P., Cho, C. J., Elkins, W. R., Wyatt, L. S., Moss, B., and Murphy, B. R. (1999) Comparison of the immunogenicity and efficacy of a replication-defective vaccinia virus expressing antigens of human parainfluenza virus type 3 (HPIV3) with those of a live attenuated HPIV3 vaccine candidate in rhesus monkeys passively immunized with PIV3 antibodies (In Process Citation). J. Infect. Dis. 179, 1345-1351.
50. 50. Turner, P. C. and Moyer, R. W. (1992) A PCR-based method for manipulation of the vaccinia virus genome that eliminates the need for cloning. Biotechniques. 13, 764-771.
51. 51. Merchlinsky, M. and Moss, B. (1992) Introduction of foreign DNA into the vaccinia virus genome by in vitro ligation: Recombination-independent selectable cloning vectors. Virology 190, 522-526.
52. 52. Scheiflinger, F., Dorner, F., and Falkner, F. G. (1992) Construction of chimeric vaccinia viruses by molecular cloning and packaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89, 9977-9981.
53. 53. Merchlinsky, M., Eckert, D., Smith, E., and Zauderer, M. (1997) Construction and characterization of vaccinia direct ligation vectors. Virology 238, 444-451.
54. 54. Pfleiderer, M., Falkner, F. G., and Dorner, F. (1995) A novel vaccinia virus expression system allowing construction of recombinants without the need for selection markers, plasmids and bacterial hosts. J. Gen. Virol. 76, 2957-2962.
55. 55. Davison, A. J. and Moss, B. (1990) New vaccinia virus recombination plasmids incorporating a synthetic late promoter for high level expression of foreign proteins. Nucl. Acids Res. 18, 4285-4286.
56. 56. Chakrabarti, S., Sisler, J. R., and Moss, B. (1997) Compact, synthetic, vaccinia virus early/late promoter for protein expression. Biotechniques 23, 1094-1097.
57. 57. Broder, C. C. and Berger, E. A. (1993) CD4 molecules with a diversity of mutations encompassing the CDR3 region efficiently support human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated cell fusion. J. Virol. 67, 913-926.
58. 58. Earl, P. L., Broder, C. C., Long, D., Lee, S., Peterson, J., Chakrabarti, S., Doms, R. W., and Moss, B. (1994) Native oligomeric human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein elicits diverse monoclonal antibody reactivities. J. Virol. 68, 3015-3026.
59. 59. Pfleiderer, M., Falkner, F. G., and Dorner, F. (1995) Requirements for optimal expression of secreted and nonsecreted recombinant proteins in vaccinia virus systems. Protein Expr. Purif. 6, 559-569.
60. 60. Zhang, Y., and Moss, B. (1991) Inducer-dependent conditional lethal mutant animal viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 1511-1515.
61. 61. Yuen, L. and Moss, B. (1987) Oligonucleotide sequence signaling transcriptional termination of vaccinia virus early genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84, 6417-6421.
62. 62. Earl, P. L., Hügin, A. W., and Moss, B. (1990) Removal of cryptic poxvirus transcription termination signals from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope gene enhances expression and immunogenicity of a recombinant vaccinia virus. J. Virol. 64, 2448-2451.
63. 63. Cook, D. G., Turner, R. S., Kolson, D. L., Lee, V. M., and Doms, R. W. (1996) Vaccinia virus serves as an efficient vector for expressing heterologous proteins in human NTera 2 neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 374, 481-492.
64. 64. Broder, C. C., Kennedy, P. E., Michaels, F., and Berger, E. A. (1994) Expression of foreign genes in cultured human primary macrophages using recombinant vaccinia virus vectors. Gene. 142, 167-174.
65. 65. Ramsey-Ewing, A. and Moss, B. (1996) Recombinant protein synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells using a vaccinia virus/bacteriophage T7 hybrid expression system. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 16962-16966.
66. 66. Broder, C. C., Dimitrov, D. S., Blumenthal, R., and Berger, E. A. (1993) The block to HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated membrane fusion in animal cells expressing human CD4 can be overcome by a human cell component(s). Virology 193, 483-491
67. 67. Broder, C. C. and Berger, E. A. (1995) Fusogenic selectivity of the envelope glycoprotein is a major determinant of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tropism for CD4+ T-cell lines vs. primary macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 9004-9008.
68. 68. Feng, Y., Broder, C. C., Kennedy, P. E. and Berger, E. A. (1996) HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor (see comments). Science 272, 872-877.
69. 69. Leyrer, S., Neubert, W. J., and Sedlmeier, R. (1998) Rapid and efficient recovery of Sendai virus from cDNA: factors influencing recombinant virus rescue. J. Virol. Methods 75, 47-58.
70. 70. Peeters, B. P., de Leeuw, O. S., Koch, G., and Gielkens, A. L. (1999) Rescue of Newcastle disease virus from cloned cDNA: evidence that cleavability of the fusion protein is a major determinant for virulence. J. Virol. 73, 5001-5009.
71. 71. Huffman, M. A. and Banerjee, A. K. (1997) An infectious clone of human parainfluenza virus type 3. J. Virol. 71, 4272-4277.
72. 72. Schneider, H., Spielhofer, P., Kaelin, K., Dotsch, C., Radecke, F., Sutter, G., and Billeter, M. A. (1997) Rescue of measles virus using a replication-deficient vaccinia-T7 vector. J. Virol. Methods 64, 57-64.
73. 73. Mena, I., Vivo, A., Ferez, E. and Portela, A. (1996) Rescue of a synthetic chloramphenicol acetyltransferase RNA into influenza virus-like particles obtained from recombinant plasmids. J. Virol. 70, 5016-5024.
74. 74. Bridgen, A. and Elliott, R. M. (1996) Rescue of a segmented negative-strand RNA virus entirely from cloned complementary DNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 15400-15404.
75. 75. Teng, M. N. and Collins, P. L. (1998) Identification of the respiratory syncytial virus proteins required for formation and passage of helper-dependent infectious particles. J. Virol. 72, 5707-5716.
76. 76. Chakrabarti, S., Brechling, K., and Moss, B. (1985) Vaccinia virus expression vector: coexpression of β-galactosidase provides visual screening of recombinant virus plaques. Mol. Cell. Biol. 5, 3403-3409.
77. 77. Ramshaw, I. A., Andrew, M. E., Philips, S. M., Boyle, D. B., and Coupar, B. E. H. (1987) Recovery of immunodeficient mice from a vaccinia virus/IL2 recombinant infection. Nature 329, 545-546.
78. 78. Falkner, F. G. and Moss, B. (1988) Escherichia coli gpt gene provides dominant selection for vaccinia virus open reading frame expression vectors. J. Virol. 62, 1849-1854.
79. 79. Boyle, D. B. and Coupar, B. E. H. (1988) A dominant selectable marker for the construction of recombinant poxviruses. Gene. 65, 123-128.
80. 80. Carroll, M. W. (1993) Expression, analysis and immunogenicity of human immunodeficiency type Ienvelope glycoprotein in vaccinia virus. PhD. dissertation. Manchester, UK, University of Manchester.
81. 81. Isaacs, S. N., Kotwal, G. J., and Moss, B. (1990) Reverse guanine phosphoribosyltransferase selection of recombinant vaccinia viruses. Virology 178, 626-630
82. 82. Falkner, F. G. and Moss, B. (1990) Transient dominant selection of recombinant vaccinia viruses. J. Virol. 64, 3108-3111.
83. 83. Scheiflinger, F., Dorner, F., and Falkner, F. G. (1998) Transient marker stabilisation: a general procedure to construct marker-free recombinant vaccinia virus. Arch. Virol. 143, 467-474.
84. 84. Franke, C. A., Rice, C. M., Strauss, J. H., and Hruby, D. E. (1985) Neomycin resistance as a dominant selectable marker for selection and isolation of vaccinia virus recombinants. Mol. Cell. Biol. 5, 1918-1924.
85. 85. Zhou, J., Crawford, L., Sun, X.-Y., and Frazer, I. H. (1991) The hygromycin-resistance-encoding gene as a selection marker for vaccinia virus recombinants. Gene. 107, 307-312.
86. 86. Rodriguez, J. F. and Esteban, M. (1989) Plaque size phenotype as a selectable marker to generate vaccinia virus recombinants. J. Virol. 63, 997-1001.
87. 87. Blasco, R. and Moss, B. (1995) Selection of recombinant vaccinia viruses on the basis of plaque formation. Gene. 158, 157-162.
88. 88. Shida, H., Tochikura, T., Sato, T., T., K., Hirayoshi, K., Seki, M., Ito, Y., Hatanaka, M., Hinuma, Y., Sugimoto, M., Takahashi-Nishimuki, F., Marayama, T., Miki, K., Suzuki, K., Morita, M., Sashiyama, H., and Hayami, M. (1987) Effect of the recombinant vaccinia viruses that express HTLV-1 envelope gene on HTLV-1 infection. EMBO. J. 6, 3379-3384.
89. 89. Holzer, G. W., Gritschenberger, W., Mayrhofer, J. A., Wieser, V., Dorner, F., and Falkner, F. G. (1998) Dominant host range selection of vaccinia recombinants by rescue of an essential gene. Virology 249, 160-166.
90. 90. Smith, K. A., Stallard, V., Roos, J. M., Hart, C., Cormier, N., Cohen, L. K., Roberts, B. E., and Payne, L. G. (1993) Host range selection of vaccinia recombinants containing insertions of foreign genes into non-coding sequences. Vaccine 11, 43-53.
91. 91. Perkus, M. E., Limbach, K., and Paoletti, E. (1989) Cloning and expression of foreign genes in vaccinia virus, using a host range selection system. J. Virol. 63, 3829-3836.
92. 92. Carroll, M. W. and Moss, B. (1995) E. coli beta-glucuronidase (GUS) as a marker for recombinant vaccinia viruses. Biotechniques 19, 352-354, 356.
93. 93. Drexler, I., Heller, K., Ohlmann, M., Erfle, V., and Sutter, G. (1999) Recombinant vaccinia virus MVA for induction and analysis of T cell responses against tumor associated antigens (Walter, W. and Stein, U., eds.) Methods in Molecular Medicine: Gene Therapy of Cancer: Methods and Protocols. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
94. 94. Boyle, M. D. P. and Reis, K. J. (1987) Bacterial Fc receptors. Biotechnology 5, 697-703.
95. 95. Chen, H. and Padmanabhan, R. (1994) A modified method for isolation of recombinant vaccinia virus. BioTechniques 17, 41-42.
96. 96. Broder, C. C. and Jones-Trower, A. Unpublished observations.
97. 97. Mackett, M., Smith, G. L., and Moss, B. (1984) General method for production and selection of infectious vaccinia virus recombinants expressing foreign genes. J. Virol. 49, 857-864.
98. 98. Flexner, C., Hugin, A., and Moss, B. (1987) Prevention of vaccinia virus infection in immunodeficient nude mice by vector-directed IL-2 expression. Nature 330, 259-262.