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0002160837
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Gene transfer from organelles to the nucleus: How much, what happens, and why?
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Martin W, Herrmann RG Gene transfer from organelles to the nucleus: how much, what happens, and why? Plant Physiol. 118:1998;9-17.
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Martin, W.1
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Coordination of nuclear and chloroplast gene expression in plant cells
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Goldschmidt-Clermont M Coordination of nuclear and chloroplast gene expression in plant cells. Int Rev Cytol. 117:1998;115-180.
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Organellar RNA polymerases of higher plants
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Hess W, Borner T Organellar RNA polymerases of higher plants. Int Rev Cytol. 190:1999;1-59.
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Characterization of transcript initiation sites in ribosome-deficient barley plastids
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Hubschmann T, Borner T Characterization of transcript initiation sites in ribosome-deficient barley plastids. Plant Mol Biol. 36:1998;493-496.
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Plant Mol Biol
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0033521650
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In vitro characterization of the tobacco rpoB promoter reveals a core sequence motif conserved between phage-type plastid and plant mitochondrial promoters
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Liere K, Maliga P In vitro characterization of the tobacco rpoB promoter reveals a core sequence motif conserved between phage-type plastid and plant mitochondrial promoters. EMBO J. 18:1990;249-257.
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Transcription and the architecture of promoters in chloroplasts
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Weihe A, Borner T Transcription and the architecture of promoters in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci. 4:1999;169-170.
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Weihe, A.1
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7
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0032515916
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Two types of differentially photo-regulated nuclear genes that encode sigma factors for chloroplast RNA polymerase in the red alga Cyanidium caldarium
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Oikawa K, Tanaka K, Takahashi H Two types of differentially photo-regulated nuclear genes that encode sigma factors for chloroplast RNA polymerase in the red alga Cyanidium caldarium. Gene. 210:1998;277-285.
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Gene
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Oikawa, K.1
Tanaka, K.2
Takahashi, H.3
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8
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0033608976
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Characterization of two chloroplast RNA polymerase σ-factors from Zea mays: Photoregulation and differential expression
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Two cDNAs possessing all the elements required for function as σ factors are described. Both factors increase in abundance in the light, leading to the proposal that these σ factors may play a role in light induced plastid transcription.
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Tan S, Troxler RF Characterization of two chloroplast RNA polymerase σ-factors from Zea mays: photoregulation and differential expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96:1999;5316-5321. Two cDNAs possessing all the elements required for function as σ factors are described. Both factors increase in abundance in the light, leading to the proposal that these σ factors may play a role in light induced plastid transcription.
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
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, pp. 5316-5321
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Tan, S.1
Troxler, R.F.2
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9
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0032518161
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Nuclear encoding of a plastid σ- factor in rice and its tissue and light dependent expression
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Substantial increase of the Os-sigA transcript on exposure to light has been shown, suggesting a role in light dependent increase in chloroplast gene expression.
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Tozawa Y, Tanaka K, Takahashi H, Wakasa K Nuclear encoding of a plastid σ- factor in rice and its tissue and light dependent expression. Nuc Acids Res. 26:1998;415-419. Substantial increase of the Os-sigA transcript on exposure to light has been shown, suggesting a role in light dependent increase in chloroplast gene expression.
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Nuc Acids Res
, vol.26
, pp. 415-419
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Tozawa, Y.1
Tanaka, K.2
Takahashi, H.3
Wakasa, K.4
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10
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0032512765
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The nuclear RPL4 gene encodes a chloroplast protein that co-purifies with the T7-like transcription complex as well as plastid ribosomes
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Trifa Y, Privat I, Gagnon J, Baeza L, Lerbs-Mache S The nuclear RPL4 gene encodes a chloroplast protein that co-purifies with the T7-like transcription complex as well as plastid ribosomes. J Biol Chem. 273:1998;3980-3985.
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Trifa, Y.1
Privat, I.2
Gagnon, J.3
Baeza, L.4
Lerbs-Mache, S.5
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11
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0026234675
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Self-splicing of the Chlamydomonas chloroplast psbA introns
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Herrin DL, Bao Y, Thompson AJ, Chen YF Self-splicing of the Chlamydomonas chloroplast psbA introns. Plant Cell. 3:1997;1095-1107.
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Plant Cell
, vol.3
, pp. 1095-1107
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Herrin, D.L.1
Bao, Y.2
Thompson, A.J.3
Chen, Y.F.4
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12
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0031106356
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Nuclear mutations that block group II RNA splicing in maize chloroplasts reveal several intron classes with distinct requirements for splicing factors
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Jenkins BD, Kulhanek DJ, Barkan AB Nuclear mutations that block group II RNA splicing in maize chloroplasts reveal several intron classes with distinct requirements for splicing factors. Plant Cell. 9:1999;283-296.
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(1999)
Plant Cell
, vol.9
, pp. 283-296
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Jenkins, B.D.1
Kulhanek, D.J.2
Barkan, A.B.3
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13
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0032029993
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Site-selective inhibition of plastid RNA editing by heat shock and antibiotics: A role for plastid translation in RNA editing
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Karcher D, Bock R Site-selective inhibition of plastid RNA editing by heat shock and antibiotics: a role for plastid translation in RNA editing. Nucl Acids Res. 26:1998;1185-1190.
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Nucl Acids Res
, vol.26
, pp. 1185-1190
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Karcher, D.1
Bock, R.2
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14
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0032583118
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Processing of the psbA 5′ untranslated region in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii depends upon factors mediating ribosome association
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This paper examines the accumulation of psbA mRNAs with different 5′ termini resulting from processing, which requires ribosome association. Mutations in the 5′ UTR that disrupt the SD sequence have been shown to affect translation and mRNA processing. Processing does not appear to directly affect light regulated protein binding or light responsive translation.
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Bruick RK, Mayfield SP Processing of the psbA 5′ untranslated region in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii depends upon factors mediating ribosome association. J Cell Biol. 143:1998;1-9. This paper examines the accumulation of psbA mRNAs with different 5′ termini resulting from processing, which requires ribosome association. Mutations in the 5′ UTR that disrupt the SD sequence have been shown to affect translation and mRNA processing. Processing does not appear to directly affect light regulated protein binding or light responsive translation.
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(1998)
J Cell Biol
, vol.143
, pp. 1-9
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Bruick, R.K.1
Mayfield, S.P.2
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15
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0031885756
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Shine-Dalgarno-like sequences are not required for translation of chloroplast mRNAs in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplasts or in Escherichia coli
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•,16], examination of the 5′ UTR of atpB, atpE, rps4 and rps7 using deletion analysis and replacement mutagenesis show no affect on translation. This suggests that translational initiation of these mRNAs occurs via a SD-independent mechanism.
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•,16], examination of the 5′ UTR of atpB, atpE, rps4 and rps7 using deletion analysis and replacement mutagenesis show no affect on translation. This suggests that translational initiation of these mRNAs occurs via a SD-independent mechanism.
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(1998)
Mol Gen Genet
, vol.257
, pp. 271-282
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Fargo, D.C.1
Zhang, M.2
Gillham, N.W.3
Boynton, J.E.4
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16
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0032479221
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Translation of tobacco chloroplast rps14 mRNA depends on a Shine-Dalgarno-like sequence in the 5′untranslated region but not on internal RNA editing in the coding region
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Hirose T, Kusumegi T, Sugiura M Translation of tobacco chloroplast rps14 mRNA depends on a Shine-Dalgarno-like sequence in the 5′untranslated region but not on internal RNA editing in the coding region. FEBS Lett. 430:1998;257-260.
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FEBS Lett
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, pp. 257-260
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Hirose, T.1
Kusumegi, T.2
Sugiura, M.3
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17
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0030774006
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Transcription and translation in chloroplasts
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Stern DB, Higgs DC, Yang J Transcription and translation in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci. 2:1997;308-315.
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(1997)
Trends Plant Sci
, vol.2
, pp. 308-315
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Stern, D.B.1
Higgs, D.C.2
Yang, J.3
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18
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0031830328
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3′-Processed mRNA is preferentially translated in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplasts
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This paper examines the importance of 3′ end processing of mRNA for translation. Deletions or modifications in the 3′ end that prevent the formation of a stem loop structure lead to reduced polysome association of Chlamydomonas atpB transcripts. It is suggested that 3′ end processing enables translation machinery to distinguish between mature transcripts and immature transcripts.
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Rott R, Levy H, Drager RG, Stern DB, Schuster G 3′-Processed mRNA is preferentially translated in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplasts. Mol Cell Biol. 18:1998;4605-4611. This paper examines the importance of 3′ end processing of mRNA for translation. Deletions or modifications in the 3′ end that prevent the formation of a stem loop structure lead to reduced polysome association of Chlamydomonas atpB transcripts. It is suggested that 3′ end processing enables translation machinery to distinguish between mature transcripts and immature transcripts.
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(1998)
Mol Cell Biol
, vol.18
, pp. 4605-4611
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Rott, R.1
Levy, H.2
Drager, R.G.3
Stern, D.B.4
Schuster, G.5
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19
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0029061736
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Phosphorylation of a chloroplast RNA-binding protein changes its affinity to RNA
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Lisitsky I, Schuster G Phosphorylation of a chloroplast RNA-binding protein changes its affinity to RNA. Nuc Acids Res. 23:1995;2506-2511.
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Nuc Acids Res
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, pp. 2506-2511
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Lisitsky, I.1
Schuster, G.2
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20
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0029828944
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Addition of destabilizing poly(A)-rich sequences to endonuclease cleavage sites during the degradation of chloroplast mRNA
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Lisitsky I, Klaff P, Schuster G Addition of destabilizing poly(A)-rich sequences to endonuclease cleavage sites during the degradation of chloroplast mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 93:1996;13398-13403.
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
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, pp. 13398-13403
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Lisitsky, I.1
Klaff, P.2
Schuster, G.3
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21
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0031910348
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In vivo evidence for 5′-3′ exoribonuclease degradation of an unstable chloroplast mRNA
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A Chlamydomonas mutant, F16, has been characterized to show instability of petD mRNA. The petD 5′ UTR has been shown to interact with MCD1, and to be required for transcript instability. Using reporter genes it has also been shown that changes in the 5′ UTR increase mRNA stability.
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Drager RG, Girard-Basou J, Choquet Y, Kindle KL, Stern D In vivo evidence for 5′-3′ exoribonuclease degradation of an unstable chloroplast mRNA. Plant J. 13:1998;85-96. A Chlamydomonas mutant, F16, has been characterized to show instability of petD mRNA. The petD 5′ UTR has been shown to interact with MCD1, and to be required for transcript instability. Using reporter genes it has also been shown that changes in the 5′ UTR increase mRNA stability.
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(1998)
Plant J
, vol.13
, pp. 85-96
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Drager, R.G.1
Girard-Basou, J.2
Choquet, Y.3
Kindle, K.L.4
Stern, D.5
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22
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0030266995
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Post-transcriptional regulation of chloroplast gene expression in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
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Rochaix J-D Post-transcriptional regulation of chloroplast gene expression in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Mol Biol. 32:1996;327-341.
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Plant Mol Biol
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Rochaix, J.-D.1
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0032988172
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Cloning and characterization of the nuclear AC115 gene of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
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Rattanachaikunsopon P, Rosch C, Kuchka MR Cloning and characterization of the nuclear AC115 gene of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Mol Biol. 39:1998;1-10.
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Plant Mol Biol
, vol.39
, pp. 1-10
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Rattanachaikunsopon, P.1
Rosch, C.2
Kuchka, M.R.3
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24
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0033522445
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Molecular cloning of the maize gene crp1 reveals similarity between regulators of mitochondrial and chloroplast gene expression
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CRP1 has been identified as a component of a chloroplast multisubunit complex. The seqence shows similarity to mitochondrial proteins, CYA5 (Neurospora) and PET309 (yeast) that have been implicated in mitochondrial gene expression. Poor association of CRP1 to ribosomes suggests that the association may be transient or mediated through other factors.
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Fisk DG, Walker MB, Barkan A Molecular cloning of the maize gene crp1 reveals similarity between regulators of mitochondrial and chloroplast gene expression. EMBO J. 18:1999;2621-2630. CRP1 has been identified as a component of a chloroplast multisubunit complex. The seqence shows similarity to mitochondrial proteins, CYA5 (Neurospora) and PET309 (yeast) that have been implicated in mitochondrial gene expression. Poor association of CRP1 to ribosomes suggests that the association may be transient or mediated through other factors.
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(1999)
EMBO J
, vol.18
, pp. 2621-2630
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Fisk, D.G.1
Walker, M.B.2
Barkan, A.3
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25
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0031953257
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Low density membranes are associated with RNA binding proteins and thylakoids in the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
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Zerges W, Rochaix J-D Low density membranes are associated with RNA binding proteins and thylakoids in the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. J Cell Biol. 140:1998;101-110.
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J Cell Biol
, vol.140
, pp. 101-110
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Zerges, W.1
Rochaix, J.-D.2
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26
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0032478202
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A poly(A) binding protein functions in the chloroplast as a message specific translation factor
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RB47, a member of a group of proteins that bind theChlamydomonas psbA mRNA with high specificity, has been been cloned and characterized. In vitro experiments confirm the specificity of RB47 binding to the 5′ UTR of psbA mRNA. This protein shows homology to a family of poly(A) binding proteins that have been characterized to regulate cytosolic translation. These data suggest that plants utilize eukaryotic-like translation initiation factors for regulation of translation in the chloroplast.
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Yohn CB, Cohen A, Danon A, Mayfield SP A poly(A) binding protein functions in the chloroplast as a message specific translation factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95:1998;2238-2243. RB47, a member of a group of proteins that bind theChlamydomonas psbA mRNA with high specificity, has been been cloned and characterized. In vitro experiments confirm the specificity of RB47 binding to the 5′ UTR of psbA mRNA. This protein shows homology to a family of poly(A) binding proteins that have been characterized to regulate cytosolic translation. These data suggest that plants utilize eukaryotic-like translation initiation factors for regulation of translation in the chloroplast.
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(1998)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
, vol.95
, pp. 2238-2243
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Yohn, C.B.1
Cohen, A.2
Danon, A.3
Mayfield, S.P.4
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27
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0032572530
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Translation of the chloroplast psbA mRNA requires the nuclear-encoded poly(A)-binding protein, RB47
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Mutation analysis shows that absence of RB47 leads to loss of translation of the psbA mRNA and a reduction in the polysome association of the psbA mRNA. These data, along with the previously characterized RB60 (PDI), were used in proposing a model for light activated translational regulation in which the cPABP binds the 5′ UTR of psbA to regulate ribosome association and hence translation.
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Yohn CB, Cohen A, Rosch C, Danon A, Mayfield SP Translation of the chloroplast psbA mRNA requires the nuclear-encoded poly(A)-binding protein, RB47. J Cell Biol. 142:1998;1-8. Mutation analysis shows that absence of RB47 leads to loss of translation of the psbA mRNA and a reduction in the polysome association of the psbA mRNA. These data, along with the previously characterized RB60 (PDI), were used in proposing a model for light activated translational regulation in which the cPABP binds the 5′ UTR of psbA to regulate ribosome association and hence translation.
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(1998)
J Cell Biol
, vol.142
, pp. 1-8
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Yohn, C.B.1
Cohen, A.2
Rosch, C.3
Danon, A.4
Mayfield, S.P.5
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28
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0032516017
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Translation of cytochrome f is autoregulated through the 5′ untranslated region of petA mRNA in Chlamydomonas chloroplasts
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The molecular basis for control by epistasy of synthesis (CES) has been investigated. Negative auto regulation of cytochrome f is mediated by the interaction between the carboxy-terminal domain of the unassembled protein and the 5′ UTR of petA mRNA. Reporter gene (aadA) analysis was used to show that all the information necessary for CES is in the 5′UTR. The autoregulation was proposed to be mediated by a ternary effector capable of binding the carboxy-terminus of cytochrome f and the 5′ UTR of petA mRNA.
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Choquet Y, Stern DB, Wostrikoff K, Kuras R, Girard-Biscou J, Wollman F-A Translation of cytochrome f is autoregulated through the 5′ untranslated region of petA mRNA in Chlamydomonas chloroplasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95:1998;4380-4385. The molecular basis for control by epistasy of synthesis (CES) has been investigated. Negative auto regulation of cytochrome f is mediated by the interaction between the carboxy-terminal domain of the unassembled protein and the 5′ UTR of petA mRNA. Reporter gene (aadA) analysis was used to show that all the information necessary for CES is in the 5′UTR. The autoregulation was proposed to be mediated by a ternary effector capable of binding the carboxy-terminus of cytochrome f and the 5′ UTR of petA mRNA.
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(1998)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
, vol.95
, pp. 4380-4385
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Choquet, Y.1
Stern, D.B.2
Wostrikoff, K.3
Kuras, R.4
Girard-Biscou, J.5
Wollman, F.-A.6
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29
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0032004983
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The protein translocation apparatus of chloroplast envelopes
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Heins L, Collinson I, Soll J The protein translocation apparatus of chloroplast envelopes. Trends Plant Sci. 3:1998;56-61.
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(1998)
Trends Plant Sci
, vol.3
, pp. 56-61
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Heins, L.1
Collinson, I.2
Soll, J.3
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31
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0032476027
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An Arabidopsis mutant defective in the plastid general protein import apparatus
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This paper presents the characterization of a mutant with defects in Toc33, a protein component of the protein translocation machinery. Different translocon components have been proposed to function at different stages of development. Deficiencies in the translocon complexes result in changing the import capabilities in vivo.
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Jarvis P, Chen L-J, Li H-m, Peto CA, Frankhauser C, Chory J An Arabidopsis mutant defective in the plastid general protein import apparatus. Science. 282:1998;100-103. This paper presents the characterization of a mutant with defects in Toc33, a protein component of the protein translocation machinery. Different translocon components have been proposed to function at different stages of development. Deficiencies in the translocon complexes result in changing the import capabilities in vivo.
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(1998)
Science
, vol.282
, pp. 100-103
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Jarvis, P.1
Chen, L.-J.2
Li, H.-M.3
Peto, C.A.4
Frankhauser, C.5
Chory, J.6
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32
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0032539010
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Tic 20 and Tic 22 are new components of the protein import apparatus at the chloroplast inner envelope membrane
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Kouranov A, Chen X, Fuks B, Schnell DJ Tic 20 and Tic 22 are new components of the protein import apparatus at the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. J Cell Biol. 143:1998;991-1002.
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(1998)
J Cell Biol
, vol.143
, pp. 991-1002
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Kouranov, A.1
Chen, X.2
Fuks, B.3
Schnell, D.J.4
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33
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0032971998
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Protein translocation into and across the bacterial plasma membrane and the plant thylakoid membrane
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Dalbey RE, Robinson C Protein translocation into and across the bacterial plasma membrane and the plant thylakoid membrane. Trends Biol Sci. 24:1999;17-22.
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Trends Biol Sci
, vol.24
, pp. 17-22
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Dalbey, R.E.1
Robinson, C.2
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34
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0033117218
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Protein import and routing systems of chloroplasts
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Keegstra K, Cline K Protein import and routing systems of chloroplasts. Plant Cell. 11:1999;557-570.
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(1999)
Plant Cell
, vol.11
, pp. 557-570
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Keegstra, K.1
Cline, K.2
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35
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0032550223
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A Sec Y homologue is required for the elaboration of the chloroplast thylakoid membrane and for normal chloroplast gene expression
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Roy LM, Barkan A A Sec Y homologue is required for the elaboration of the chloroplast thylakoid membrane and for normal chloroplast gene expression. J Cell Biol. 141:1998;385-395.
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(1998)
J Cell Biol
, vol.141
, pp. 385-395
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Roy, L.M.1
Barkan, A.2
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36
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0032544070
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A novel signal recognition particle targets light harvesting proteins to the thylakoid membranes
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This paper describes the identification of a chloroplast homologue of SRP54 that mediates GTP dependent cotranslational targeting of proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum. It has also been shown that cpSRP54 forms a complex with cpSRP43 and LHCP, and that this complex is necessary for protein transit.
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Schuenemann D, Gupta S, Percello-Dartieaux F, Klimyuk VI, Jones JDG, Nussaume L, Hoffman NE A novel signal recognition particle targets light harvesting proteins to the thylakoid membranes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95:1998;10312-10316. This paper describes the identification of a chloroplast homologue of SRP54 that mediates GTP dependent cotranslational targeting of proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum. It has also been shown that cpSRP54 forms a complex with cpSRP43 and LHCP, and that this complex is necessary for protein transit.
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(1998)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
, vol.95
, pp. 10312-10316
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Schuenemann, D.1
Gupta, S.2
Percello-Dartieaux, F.3
Klimyuk, V.I.4
Jones, J.D.G.5
Nussaume, L.6
Hoffman, N.E.7
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37
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0033597136
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Chloroplast Sec Y is complexed to Sec E and involved in the translocation of the 33 kDa but not the 23 kDa subunit of the oxygen-evolving complex
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Schuenemann D, Amin P, Hartmann E, Hoffman NE Chloroplast Sec Y is complexed to Sec E and involved in the translocation of the 33 kDa but not the 23 kDa subunit of the oxygen-evolving complex. J Biol Chem. 274:1999;12177-12182.
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J Biol Chem
, vol.274
, pp. 12177-12182
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Schuenemann, D.1
Amin, P.2
Hartmann, E.3
Hoffman, N.E.4
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38
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0033534784
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Functional divergence of the plastid and cytosolic forms of the 54 kDa subunit of signal recognition particle
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Schuenemann D, Amin P, Hoffman NE Functional divergence of the plastid and cytosolic forms of the 54 kDa subunit of signal recognition particle. Biochem Biophys Res Comm. 254:1999;253-258.
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Biochem Biophys Res Comm
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, pp. 253-258
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Schuenemann, D.1
Amin, P.2
Hoffman, N.E.3
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39
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0033081464
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Interactions of ribosome nascent chain complexes of the chloroplast encoded D1 thylakoid membrane protein with cpSRP54
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A homologous translation system has been used to investigate the mechanism of targeting and assembly for chloroplast D1 protein. Cross linking studies showed that cpSRP54 interacts only when D1 nascent chain is still attached to the ribosome, implicating a role for cpSRP54 in D1 biogenesis.
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Nilsson R, Brunner J, Hoffman NE, vanWijk KJ Interactions of ribosome nascent chain complexes of the chloroplast encoded D1 thylakoid membrane protein with cpSRP54. EMBO J. 18:1999;733-742. A homologous translation system has been used to investigate the mechanism of targeting and assembly for chloroplast D1 protein. Cross linking studies showed that cpSRP54 interacts only when D1 nascent chain is still attached to the ribosome, implicating a role for cpSRP54 in D1 biogenesis.
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(1999)
EMBO J
, vol.18
, pp. 733-742
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Nilsson, R.1
Brunner, J.2
Hoffman, N.E.3
Vanwijk, K.J.4
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40
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6544282660
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A chromodomain protein encoded by the Arabidopsis cao gene is a plant-specific component of the chloroplast signal recognition particle pathway that is involved in LHCP targeting
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Transposon tagging was used to isolate a recessive mutation in a protein designated as cpSRP43 involved in the SRP pathway. The function of cpSRP43 is distinct from cpSRP54 as mutants deficient in either of these components show different phenotypes. The function of cpSRP43 has been proposed to be limited to thylakoid membrane targeting, whereas cpSRP54 has been shown to be involved in additional processes along with protein targeting to the thylakoid membranes.
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Several new cue mutants have been identified showing a variety of phenotypes. The reduction in CAB expression correlates with the visible phenotype, defective chloroplast development, and reduced abundance of LHCP. Most of these mutants have been shown to respond to phytochrome activation by derepressing CAB expression, suggesting that plastid-derived signal shares the pathway through which phytochrome regulates gene expression.
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Transposon tagging was used to clone IM, the mutation of which causes a variegated phenotype. IM protein shows similarity to mitochondrial alternative oxidases. This alternative oxidase has been proposed to be involved in phytoene desaturation and may play a role in preventing photo-oxidative damage.
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Carol P, Stevenson D, Bisanz C, Beitenbach J, Sandmann H, Mache R, Coupland G, Kuntz M Mutations in the Arabidopsis gene IMMUTANS cause a variegated phenotype by inactivating a chloroplast terminal oxidase associated with phytoene desaturation. Plant Cell. 11:1999;57-68. Transposon tagging was used to clone IM, the mutation of which causes a variegated phenotype. IM protein shows similarity to mitochondrial alternative oxidases. This alternative oxidase has been proposed to be involved in phytoene desaturation and may play a role in preventing photo-oxidative damage.
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Further characterization of the IM gene shows that it encodes an enzyme used in the synthesis of the carotenoid precursor phytoene. The gene is proposed to function in the early stages of chloroplast biogenesis.
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Wu D, Wright DA, Wetzel C, Voytas DF, Rodermel The IMMUTANS variegation locus of Arabidopsis defines a mitochondrial alternative oxidase homolog that functions during early chloroplast biogenesis. Plant Cell. 11:1999;43-55. Further characterization of the IM gene shows that it encodes an enzyme used in the synthesis of the carotenoid precursor phytoene. The gene is proposed to function in the early stages of chloroplast biogenesis.
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