Biofilms

Current Opinion in Microbiology

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 270-275

  Stickler, David ^a  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL GROWTH; BIOFILM; CELL SUSPENSION; COMPLEX FORMATION; CONTROL SYSTEM; MOLECULAR GENETICS; PROTECTION; REVIEW;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 0033152392     PISSN: 13695274     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1369-5274(99)80047-2     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. Hall-Stoodley L, Lappin-Scott H: Biofilm formation by the rapidly growing mycobacterial species Mycobacterium fortuitum. FEMS Microbiol Letts 1998, 168:77-84.
2. Kajanda EO, Çiftçioglu N: Nanobacteria: An alternative mechanism for pathogenic intra- and extracellular calcification and stone formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, 95:8274-8279. This paper reports the properties of a new class of bacteria that were designated Nanobacteria because they pass through 0.1 μm filters. They form biofilms and can induce the extracellular crystallisation of calcium phosphate at neutral pH and at physiological concentrations of calcium. They were found to be present in 30 randomly selected human kidney stones. These observations are exciting because most kidney stones are not thought to have an infectious aetiology. The paper opens up a whole new area of research, not only on the role played by nanobacterial biofilms in renal stone formation but also in the aetiology of many other pathological conditions that are characterised by extraskeletal calcification.
3. Wai SN, Mizunoe Y, Takade A, Kawabata S-I, Yoshida S-I: Vibrio cholera 01 strain TSI-4 produces the exopolysaccharide materials that determine colony morphology, stress resistance and biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:3648-3655.
4. Morris CE, Monier J-M, Jacques M-A: A technique to quantify the population size and composition of the biofilm component in communities of bacteria in the phyllosphere. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:4789-4795.
5. Wollin TA, Tieszer C, Riddell JV, Denstedt JD, Reid G: Bacterial biofilm formation, encrustation and antibiotic adsorption to ureteral stents indwelling in humans. J Endourol 1998, 12:101-111.
6. Santo Domingo JW, Berry CJ, Summer M, Fliermans CB: Microbiology of spent nuclear fuel storage basins. Curr Microbiol 1998, 37:387-394.
7. Dutkiewicz C, Fallowfield H: Assessment of microbial involvement in the elevation of copper levels in drinking water. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 85:597-602.
8. Elvers KT, Leeming KT, Moore CP, Lappin-Scott HM: Bacterial-fungal biofilms in flowing water photo-processing tanks. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 84:607-618.
9. McLaughlan-Borlace L, Stapleton F, Matheson M, Dart JKG: Bacterial biofilm on contact lenses and lens storage cases in wearers with microbial keratitis. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 84:827-838.
10. Fletcher J, Nair S, Poole S, Henderson B, Wilson M: Cytokine degradation by biofilms of Porphyromonas gingivalis. Curr Microbiol 1998, 36:216-219. This paper presents evidence that biofilms of Porphyromonas gingivalis can degrade both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. It is suggested that these effects could eliminate cytokines in the local periodontal environment and thus contribute to the chronic inflammatory state associated with periodontitis.
11. Muli F, Struthers JK: Use of a continuos-culture biofilm system to study the antimicrobial susceptibilities of Gardnerella vaginalis and Lactobacillus acidophilus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:1428-1432.
12. Pratten J, Barnett P, Wilson M: Composition and susceptibility to chlorhexidine of multispecies biofilms of oral bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:3515-3519.
13. Budhani RK, Struthers JK: Interaction of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis: Investigation of the indirect pathogenic role of β-lactamase-producing Moraxallae by use of a continuous-culture biofilm system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:2521-2526.
14. Das JR, Bhakoo M, Jones MV, Gilbert P: Changes in the biocide susceptibility of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Escherichia coli cells associated with rapid attachment to plastic surfaces. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 84:852-858.
15. Morris NS, Stickler DJ: Encrustation of indwelling urethral catheters by Proteus mirabilis biofilms growing in human urine. J Hosp Infect 1998, 39:227-234.
16. Raad I: Intravascular-catheter-related infections. Lancet 1998, 351:893-898.
17. Pratt LA, Kolter R: Genetic analysis of Escherichia coli biofilm formation: Roles of flagella, motility, chemotaxis and type 1 pili. Mol Microbiol 1998, 30:285-293. Motile strains of E. coli grown in Luria Bertani broth were found to attach readily to a variety of abiotic surfaces including polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polycarbonate, polystyrene, and borosilicate glass. Subsequent genetic analysis allowed the identification of some of the genes responsible for biofilm formation by E. coli in rich media.
18. O'Toole GA, Kolter R: Initiation of biofilm formation in Pseudomonas fluorescens WCS356 proceeds via multiple, convergent signalling pathways: A genetic analysis. Mol Microbiol 1998, 28:449-461. Protein synthesis was found to be required for the initiation of biofilm formation by P. fluorescens. The isolation and analysis of surface attachment deficient (sad) mutants indicated that flagella, a cell-surface protein and other unidentified factors have roles in the process. Evidence was presented that environmental signals, such as iron availability and particular carbon and energy sources, controlled which of the factors were used.
19. O'Toole GA, Kolter R: flagellar and twitching motility are necessary for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Mol Microbiol 1998, 30:295-305. Another example of the value of the genetic approach to identifying the factors bacteria use to attach to surfaces.
20. Austin JW, Sanders G, Kay WW, Collinson SK: Thin aggregative fimbrae enhance Salmonella enteritidis biofilm formation. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1998, 162:295-301. A number of Salmonella cell surface components such as fimbrae, flagella, lipopolysaccharide or slime layers might have functions in biofilm formation on inert surfaces. This paper presents evidence that a particular type of fimbrae was responsible for the ability of a virulent strain of Salmonella enteritidis to form thick aggregates on surfaces.
21. Wimpenny JWT, Colasanti R: A unifying hypothesis for the structure of microbial biofilms based on cellular automaton models. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 1997, 22:1-16.
22. Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, Caldwell DE, Korber DR, Lappin-Scott HM: Microbial biofilms. Annu Rev Microbiol 1995, 49:711-745.
23. Fuqua C, Winnans SC, Greenberg EP: Census and consensus in bacterial ecosystems: The LuxR-Luxl family of quorum-sensing transcriptional regulators. Annu Rev Microbiol 1996, 50:727-751.
24. McLean RJC, Whitely M, Stickler DJ, Fuqua WC: Evidence of autoinducer activity in naturally occurring biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1997, 154:259-263.
25. Stickler DJ, Morris N, McLean RJC, Fuqua C: Biofilms on indwelling urethral catheters produce quorum-sensing signal molecules in situ and in vitro. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:3486-3490. The Agrobacterium tumefaciens cross-feeding assay was used to demonstrate that Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms produce acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs) as they develop on catheters both in vitro in a bladder model and in vivo in patients' bladders. This was the first demonstration of AHL formation by biofilms in vivo. It was also shown that AHLs adsorb onto silicone catheters.
26. Davies DG, Parsek MR, Pearson, JP, Iglewski BH, Costerton JW, Greenberg EP: The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of a bacterial biofilm. Science 1998, 280:295-298. Essential reading for all students of biofilms. A plasmid containing a gene for the production of an enhanced green fluorescent protein was introduced into a wild-type P. aeruginosa and a lasl mutant unable to synthesise the diffusible extra-cellular signal N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone. This allowed a comparison of biofilm formation by the test strains using epifluorescence and scanning confocal laser microscopy.
27. Kuehn M, Hausner M, Bungartz H-J, Wagner M, Wilderer PA, Wuertz S: Automated confocal laser scanning microscopy and semiautomated image processing for analysis of biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:4115-4127. This paper describes the development of an impressive computer programme capable of performing automated investigations of biofilms using flow-cells and scanning confocal laser microscopy. Routine measurements of the three-dimensional structure of biofilms can be made by automated image acquisition and analysis.
28. Skillman LC, Sutherland IW, Jones MV, Goulsbra A: Green fluorescent protein as a novel species-specific marker in enteric dual-species biofilms. Microbiol 1998, 144:2095-2101. A plasmid encoding for green fluorescent protein was transformed into strains of Enterobacter agglomerans and Escherichia coli. The development of dual species biofilms containing one fluorescent and one non-fluorescent partner was then followed. Some combinations were competitive (e.g. Serratia marcescens outgrew E. agglomerans) others co-existed in biofilms (e.g. S. marcesens and E. coli).
29. Stretton S, Techkarnjanaruk S, McLennan AM, Goodman AE: Use of green fluorescent protein to tag and investigate gene expression in marine bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:2554-2559. A good example of how to tag cells and genes in biofilms and observe their behaviour under scanning confocal laser microscopy. A marine organism Pseudoalteromonas sp. was shown to form biofilms consisting of flat microscolonies some 20 μm above the surface of a natural chitin surface.
30. Buswell CM, Herlihy YM, Lawrence LM, McGuiggan, Marsh PD, Keevil CW, Leach SA: Extended survival and persistence of Campylobacter spp. in water and aquatic biofilms and their detection by immunofluorescent-antibody and -rRNA staining. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:733-741. Fluorescent antibody and specific 16S rRNA probes were used to examine the survival of Camplylobacter spp. in experimental biofilms of autochthonous water organisms. The Campylobacter became associated with microcolonies of the other organisms and persisted in the biofilm for up to 42 days at 4°C.
31. Gillan DE, Specksnijder AGCL, Zwart G, De Ridder C: Genetic diversity of the biofilm covering Montacuta ferruginosa (Mollusca, Bivalvia) as evaluated by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis and cloning of PCR-amplified gene fragments coding for 16S rRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:3464-3472. Montacuta ferruginosa is a small marine bivalve that is covered by a rust coloured mineralised biofilm composed predominantly of filamentous bacteria. These organisms have not been cultured or identified. In this paper molecular genetic techniques revealed the biofilms contained up to 25 different sequence types of 16S ribosomal DNA.
32. Santegoeds CM, Ferdelman TG, Muyzer G, de Beer D: Structural and functional dynamics of sulphate reducing populations in bacterial biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:3731-3739. The application of state of the art technology to the study of biofilms growing in aerobic sulphate-containing waters with high organic loads. Microsensors were used to measure oxygen and hydrogen sulphide profiles. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis (DGGE) of PCR-amplified 16S ribosomal DNA fragments was used to examine the complexity of the microbial community and follow the behaviour of the biofilm over 12 weeks. Hybridisation analysis of the DGGE profiles with group-specific oligonucleotide probes was used to identify sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) and in situ hybridisation with thin sections of biofilm to quantify SRB and determine their distribution in the biofilm.
33. Møller S, Sternberg C, Andersen JB, Christensen BB, Ramos JL, Givskov M, Molin S: In situ gene expression in mixed-culture biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:721-732. An impressive study demonstrating the power of molecular genetic techniques. Biofilms were formed in flow cells. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was used to report the activity of genes involved in the degradation of toluene. Scanning confocal laser microscopy allowed the direct monitoring of the activity of the genes with single-cell spatial resolution. In addition, in fixed biofilm samples organisms were identified and gene expression visualised simultaneously by the combined use of GFP with in situ hybridisation with fluorescence-labelled 16S rRNA targeting probes.
34. Christensen BB, Sternberg C, Andersen JB, Eberl L, Møller S, Givskov M, Molin S: Establishment of new genetic traits in a microbial biofilm community. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:2247-2255. Another excellent paper. A plasmid carrying the genes for toluene degradation was tagged with the gene encoding green fluorescent protein (gfp) and transferred into Pseudomonas putida. This strain was introduced into flow cell two days after a three membered biofilm community, which included the parent P. putida strain (not carrying the plasmid). The plasmid established itself in the biofilm. The frequency of transfer of plasmid in the biofilm was low and the main cause of plasmid establishment in the biofilm was by growth of the incoming donor strain. The P. putida cells in the biofilm were located in the upper layers of the biofilm in organised clusters sticking up from the surface. The proliferation of the plasmid carrying cells took place primarily on the surfaces of these pre-existing microcolonies of isogenic cells in the community.
35. Huang C-T, Xu KD, McFeters GA, Stewart PS: Spatial patterns of alkaline phosphatase expression within bacterial colonies and biofilms in response to phosphate starvation. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:1526-1531. The ability of cells to express alkaline phosphatase on exposure to phosphate starvation was used as an indicator of physiological activity of both Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. The patterns of alkaline phosphatase expression in biofilms after a period of phosphate starvation were found to be both spatially and temporally heterogeneous.
36. Xu KD, Stewart PS, Xia F, Huang C-T, McFeters GA: Spatial physiological heterogeneity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm is determined by oxygen availability. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:4035-4039. Physiologically active cells were shown to be restricted to the top 30 μm (oxygen-replete) zone of 130 μm deep P. aeruginosa biofilms.
37. Hawser SP, Baillie GS, Douglas LJ: Production of extracellular matrix by Candida albicans biofilms. J Med Microbiol 1998, 47:253-256.
38. Baillie GS, Douglas LJ: Effect of growth rate on resistance of Candida albicans biofilms to antifungal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:1900-1905.
39. Baillie GS, Douglas LJ: Iron-limited biofilms of Candida albicans and their susceptibility to amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:2146-2149. Planktonic cells were resistant to amphotericin B only at low rates of growth, whereas biofilm cells were resistant at both high and low growth rates.
40. Desai M, Bühler T, Weller PH, Brown MRW: Increasing resistance of planktonic and biofilm cultures of Burkholderia cepacia to ciprofloxacin and ceftazidime during exponential growth. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998, 42:153-160. Growth rate was not an important factor in the resistance of Burkholderia cepacia biofilms to ceftazidime and ciprofloxacin. Resistance increased progressively the exponential phase of growth reaching a maximum in stationary phase.
41. Suci PA, Vrany JD, Mittelman MW: Investigation of interactions between antimicrobial agents and bacterial biofilms using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Biomaterials 1998, 19:327-339. A valuable review of the mechanisms that have been put forward to explain the recalcitrance of biofilms to antimicrobial agents. The authors also discuss the analytical capabilities of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy. They conclude that this technique could provide valuable information about the transport of antimicrobial agents through biofilms and on the nature of the interactions between the agents and biofilm components.
42. Stewart PS, Grab L, Diemar JA: Analysis of biocide transport limitation in an artificial biofilm system. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 85:495-500.
43. Pratten J, Smith AW, Wilson M: Response of single species biofilms and microcosm dental plaques to pulsing with chlorhexidine. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998, 42:453-459.
44. Wilson M, Patel H, Noar JH: Effect of chlorhexidine on multi-species biofilms. Current Microbiol 1998, 36:13-18.
45. Raad I, Alrahwan A, Rolston K: Staphylococcus epidermidis: Emerging resistance and need for alternative agents. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 26:1182-1187.
46. Reid G: Bacterial colonisation of prosthetic devices and measures to prevent infection. New Horizons 1998, 6:S58-S61.
47. Ishida H, Ishida Y, Kurosaka Y, Otani T, Sato K, Kobayashi H: In vitro and in vivo activities of levofloxacin against biofilm-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:1641-1645. The fluoroquinolone levofloxacin was bactericidal at minimum inhibitory concentration against six day old P. aeruginosa biofilms growing on Teflon sheets. Evidence was also presented that it exhibited therapeutic efficacy against experimental P. aeruginosa pneumonia in guinea pigs.
48. Wood P, Caldwell DE, Evans E, Jones M, Korber DR, Wolfhaardt GM, Wilson M, Gilbert P: Surface-catalysed disinfection of thick Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 84:1092-1098. This paper describes a clever strategy for the disinfection of mature biofilms. It might find applications in some situations.
49. Mott IEC, Stickler DJ, Coakley WT, Bott TR: The removal of bacterial biofilm from water-filled tubes using axially propagated ultrasound. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 84:509-514.
50. Hughes KA, Sutherland IW, Jones MV: Biofilm susceptibility to bacteriophage attack: The role of phage-borne polysaccharide depolymerase. Microbiology 1998, 144:3039-3047.
51. Hughes KA, Sutherland IW, Clark J, Jones MV: Bacteriophages and associated polysaccharide depolymerases - Novel tools for the study of bacterial biofilms. J Appl Microbiol 1998, 85:583-590. Lytic bacteriophages active on three representative Gram-negative biofilm bacteria were isolated from sewage. The phages had specific polysaccharide depolymerases. The authors propose that these viruses could be exploited in the study of mixed community biofilms. They could, for example, be used to selectively remove particular bacteria or polysaccharides from biofilms.
52. Bradshaw DJ, Marsh PD, Watson GK, Allison C: Role of Fusobacterium nucleatum and coaggregation in anaerobe survival in planktonic and biofilm oral microbial communities during aeration. Infect Immun 1998, 66:4729-4732. A very clear demonstration that interactions between members of a mixed biofilm are essential for the stability of the community.