Pathogenesis of Ascites and Renal Salt Retention in Cirrhosis

Journal of Investigative Medicine

Volumn 47, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 183-202

  Palmer, Biff F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALDOSTERONE; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; DIURETIC AGENT; PROSTAGLANDIN;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ANIMAL; ASCITES; BLOOD VOLUME; HUMAN; KALLIKREIN KININ SYSTEM; KIDNEY; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; NATRIURESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERITONEUM VEIN SHUNT; PHYSIOLOGY; PORTOSYSTEMIC ANASTOMOSIS; REVIEW; SODIUM RESTRICTION; VASCULARIZATION;

ALDOSTERONE; ANIMALS; ASCITES; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BLOOD VOLUME; DIET, SODIUM-RESTRICTED; DIURETICS; HUMANS; KALLIKREIN-KININ SYSTEM; KIDNEY; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; NATRIURESIS; PERITONEOVENOUS SHUNT; PORTASYSTEMIC SHUNT, TRANSJUGULAR INTRAHEPATIC; PROSTAGLANDINS; SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM;

EID: 0033128378     PISSN: 17088267     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Witte CL, Chung YC, Witte MH, et al. Observations on the origin of ascites from experimental extrahepatic portal congestion. Ann Surg 1969;170:1002-15.
2. Barrowman JA, Granger DN. Effects of experimental cirrhosis on splanchnic microvascular fluid and solute exchange in the rat. Gastroenterology 1984;87:165-72.
3. Witte MH, Witte CL, Dumont AE. Estimated net transcapillary water and protein flux in the liver and intestine of patients with portal hypertension from hepatic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1981;80:265-72.
4. Granger DN, Miller T, Allen R, et al. Permselectivity of cat liver blood-lymph barrier to endogenous macromolecules. Gastroenterology 1979;77:103-9.
5. Witte MH, Witte CL, Dumont, AE. Progress in liver disease: physiological factors involved in the causation of cirrhotic ascites. Gastroenterology 1971;61:742-50.
6. Witte CL, Witte MH, Dumont AE. Lymph imbalance in the genesis and perpetuation of the ascites syndrome in hepatic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1980;78:1059-68.
7. Witte CL, Witte MH, Dumont AE, et al. Protein content in lymph and edema fluids in congestive heart failure. Circulation 1969;40:623-30.
8. Schaffner F, Popper H. Capillarization of hepatic sinusoids in man. Gastroenterology 1963;44:239-42.
9. Atkinson M, Losowsky MS. The mechanism of ascites formation in chronic liver disease. Q J M 1961;30:153-66.
10. Bosch J, Enriquez R, Groszmann RJ, et al. Chronic bile duct ligation in the dog: hemodynamic characterization of a portal hypertensive model. Hepatology 1983;3:1002-7.
11. Vorobioff J, Bredfeldt JE, Groszmann RJ. Hyperdynamic circulation in portal-hypertensive rat model: a primary factor for maintenance of chronic portal hypertension. Am J Physiol 1983;244:G52-7.
12. Vorobioff J, Bredfeldt JE, Groszmann RJ. Increased blood flow through the portal system in cirrhotic rats. Gastroenterology 1984;87:1120-6.
13. Benoit JN, Granger DN. Intestinal microvascular adaptation to chronic portal hypertension in the rat. Gastroenterology 1988;94:471-6.
14. Korthuis RJ, Kinden DA, Brimer GE, et al. Intestinal capillary filtration in acute and chronic portal hypertension. Am J Physiol 1988;254:G339-45.
15. Rector WG, Jr. Portal hypertension: a permissive factor only in the development of ascites and variceal bleeding. Liver 1986;6:221-6.
16. Morali GA, Sniderman KW, Deitel KM, et al. Is sinusoidal portal hypertension a necessary factor for the development of hepatic ascites? J Hepatol 1992;16:249-50.
17. Gines P, Fernandez-Esparrach G, Arroyo V, Rodes J. Pathogenesis of ascites in cirrhosis. Semin Liver Dis 1997;17: 175-89.
18. Bosch J, Arroyo V, Betriu A, et al. Hepatic hemodynamics and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1980;78:92-9.
19. Castells A, Salo J, Planas R, et al. Impact of shunt surgery for variceal bleeding in the natural history of ascites in cirrhosis: a retrospective study. Hepatology 1994;20:584-91.
20. Ochs A, Rossle M, Haag K, et al. The transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent-shunt procedure for refractory ascites. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1192-7.
21. Kowalski HJ, Abelmann WH. The cardiac output at rest in Laennec's cirrhosis. J Clin Invest 1953;32:1025-33.
22. Murray JF, Dawson AM, Sherlock S. Circulatory changes in chronic liver disease. Am J Med 1958;24:358-67.
23. Lieberman FL, Denison EK, Reynolds TB. The relationship of plasma volume, portal hypertension, ascites, and renal sodium retention in cirrhosis: the overflow theory of ascites formation. Ann NY Acad Sci 1970;170:202-11.
24. Levy M. Sodium retention and ascites formation in dogs with experimental portal cirrhosis. Am J Physiol 1977;233:F572-85.
25. Levy M, Allotey JB. Temporal relationships between urinary salt retention and altered systemic hemodynamics in dogs with experimental cirrhosis. J Lab Clin Med 1978;92:560-569.
26. Levy M, Wexler MJ. Renal sodium retention and ascites formation in dogs with experimental cirrhosis but without portal hypertension or increased splanchnic vascular capacity. J Lab Clin Med 1978;91:520-36.
27. Unikowsky B, Wexler MJ, Levy M. Dogs with experimental cirrhosis of the liver but without intrahepatic hypertension do not retain sodium or form ascites. J Clin Invest 1983;72:1594-604.
28. Lopez C, Jimenez W, Arroyo V, et al. Temporal relationship between the decrease in arterial pressure and sodium retention in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats with carbon tetrachloride-induced cirrhosis. Hepatology 1991;13:585-9.
29. Sawchenko PE, Friedman MI. Sensory functions of the liver: a review. Am J Physiol 1979;236:R5-20.
30. Andrews WHH, Palmer JF. Afferent nervous discharge from the canine liver. Q J Exp Physiol 1967;52:269-76.
31. Levy M, Wexler MJ. Hepatic denervation alters first-phase urinary sodium excretion in dogs with cirrhosis. Am J Physiol 1987;253:F664-71.
32. Levy M, Wexler MJ. Sodium excretion in dogs with low-grad caval constriction: role of hepatic nerves. Am J Physiol 1987;253:F672-8.
33. Kostreva DR, Castaner A, Kampine JP. Reflex effects of hepatic baroreceptors on renal and cardiac sympathetic nerve activity. Am J Physiol 1980;238:R390-4.
34. Anderson RJ, Cronin RE, McDonald KM, Schrier RW. Mechanisms of portal hypertension-induced alterations in renal hemodynamics, renal water excretion, and renin secretion. J Clin Invest 1976;58:964-70.
35. Bankir L, Martin H, Dechaux M, Ahloulay M. Plasma cAMP: a hepatorenal link influencing proximal reabsorption and renal hemodynamics? Kidney Int 1997;51 (suppl 59):S50-6.
36. Rector WG, Hossack KF. Pathogenesis of sodium retention complicating cirrhosis: is there room for diminished effective arterial blood volume? Gastroenterology 1988;95:1658-63.
37. Wilkinson SP, Jowett JP, Slater JD, Arroyo V, Moodie H, Williams, R. Renal sodium retention in cirrhosis: relation to aldosterone and nephron site. Clin Sci 1979;56:169-77.
38. Arroyo V, Bosch J, Mauri M, et al. Renin, aldosterone and renal hemodynamics in cirrhosis with ascites. Eur J Clin Invest 1979;9:69-73.
39. Wolff HP, Koczorek KR, Buchborn E. Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (Adiuretin) in liver disease. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1958;27:45-58.
40. Alpern RJ. Renal sodium retention in liver disease. (Medical Staff Conference, University of California, San Francisco) West J Med 1983;138:852-60.
41. Bosch J, Arroyo V, Betria A, et al. Hepatic hemodynamics and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1980;78:92-9.
42. Rosoff L, Zia P, Reynolds T, Horton R. Studies of renin and aldosterone in cirrhotic patients with ascites. Gastroenterology 1975;69:698-705.
43. Ciplea A, Bubuianu E. Cerebrospinal fluid-, blood-, and ascites-catecholamines in hepatic cirrhosis. Physiologie 1979;16:19-24.
44. Henriksen JH, Christensen NJ, Ring-Larsen H. Noradrenalin and adrenalin concentrations in various vascular beds in patients with cirrhosis: relation to haemodynamics. Clin Physiol 1981;1:293-304.
45. Bichet DG, Van Putten VJ, Schrier RW. Potential role of increased sympathetic activity in impaired sodium and water excretion in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1982;307:1552-7.
46. Bichet DG, Szatalowicz V, Chaimovitz C, Schrier RW. Role of vasopressin in abnormal water excretion in cirrhotic patients. Ann Intern Med 1982;96:413-7.
47. Perez-Ayuso RM, Arroyo V, Camps J. Evidence that renal prostaglandins are involved in renal water metabolism in cirrhosis. Kidney Int 1984;26:72-80.
48. Nicholls KM, Shapiro MD, Groves BS, Schrier RW. Factors determining renal response to water immersion in nonexcretor cirrhotic patients. Kidney Int 1986;30:417-21.
49. Moller S, Henriksen JH. Circulatory abnormalities in cirrhosis with focus on neurohumoral aspects. Semin Nephrol 1997;17:505-19.
50. Henriksen JH, Bendtsen F, Sorenson TIA, et al. Reduced central blood volume in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1989;97:1506-13.
51. Henriksen JH, Bendtsen F, Gerbes AL, et al. Estimated central blood volume in cirrhosis: relationship to sympathetic nervous activity, b-adrenergic blockade and atrial natriuretic factor. Hepatology 1992;5:1163-70.
52. Epstein M. Cardiovascular and renal effects of head-out water immersion in man. Circ Res 1976;39:619-28.
53. Epstein M. Deranged sodium homeostasis in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1979;76:622-35.
54. Epstein M. Renal effects of head-out immersion in man: implications for an understanding of volume homeostasis. Physiol Rev 1978;58:529-81.
55. Epstein M, Levinson R, Sancho J, Haber E, Re R. Characterization of the renin-aldosterone system in decompensated cirrhosis. Circ Res 1977;41:818-29.
56. Epstein M, Pins DS, Schneider N, Levinson R. Determinants of deranged sodium and water homeostasis in decompensated cirrhosis. J Lab Clin Med 1976;87:822-39.
57. Bichet DG, Groves BM, Schrier RW. Mechanisms of improvement of water and sodium excretion by immersion in decompensated cirrhotic patients. Kidney Int 1983;24:788-94.
58. Nicholls KM, Shapiro MD, Van Putten VJ, et al. Elevated plasma norepinephrine concentrations in decompensated cirrhosis. Circ Res 1985;56:457-61.
59. Blendis LM, Greig PD, Longer B, Baigrie RS, Ruse J, Taylor BR. The renal and hemodynamic effects of the peritoneovenous shunt for intractable hepatic ascites. Gastroenterology 1979;77:250-7.
60. Quiroga J, Sangro B, Nunez M, et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portal-systemic shunt in the treatment of refractory ascites: effect on clinical, renal, humoral, and hemodynamic parameters. Hepatology 1995;21:986-94.
61. Gines P, Tito L, Arroyo V, et al. Randomized comparative study of therapeutic paracentesis with and without intravenous albumin in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1988;94:1493-1502.
62. Better O. Renal and cardiovascular dysfunction in liver disease. Kidney Int 1986;29:598-607.
63. Palu CD, Donaggio G, Zotto ID, Pessina AC. Arteriovenous shunts in cirrhotic patients studied with human serum albumin macroaggregates tagged with 1131 (MAA 131I). Scand J Gastroenterol 1968;3:425-31.
64. Kontos HA, Shapiro W, Mauck HP, Patterson JL. General and regional circulatory alterations in cirrhosis of the liver. Am J Med 1964;37:526-35.
65. Manenti F, Williams R. Injection studies of the splenic vasculature in portal hypertension. Gut 1966;7:175-80.
66. Epstein FH, Post RS, McDowell M. The effect of an arteriovenous fistula on renal hemodynamics and electrolyte excretion. J Clin Invest 1953;32:233-41.
67. Limas CJ, Guiha NH, Lekagul O, Cohn JN. Impaired left ventricular function in alcoholic cirrhosis with ascites. Circulation 1974;69:755-60.
68. Caramelo C, Fernandez-Munoz D, Santos JC, et al. Effect of volume expansion on hemodynamics, capillary permeability and renal function in conscious, cirrhotic rats. Hepatology 1986;6:129-34.
69. Sanz E, Caramelo C, Lopez-Novoa JM. Interstitial dynamics in rats with early stage experimental cirrhosis of the liver. Am J Physiol 1989;256:F497-503.
70. Schrier RW. Pathogenesis of sodium and water retention in high-output and low-output cardiac failure, nephrotic syndrome, cirrhosis, and pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1988;319:1065-72 and 1127-34.
71. Schrier RW, Arroyo V, Bernardi M, Epstein M, Henriksen JH, Rodes J. Peripheral arterial vasodilation hypothesis: a proposal for the initiation of renal sodium and water retention. J Hepatol 1987;6:239-57.
72. Albillos A, Colombato LA, Groszmann RJ. Vasodilatation and sodium retention in prehepatic portal hypertension. Gastroenterology 1992;102:931-5.
73. Fernandez-Munoz D, Caramelo C, Santos JC, Blanchart A, Hernando L, Lopez-Nova JM. Systemic and splanchnic hemodynamic disturbances in conscious rats with experimental liver cirrhosis without ascites. Am J Physiol 1985;249:G316-20.
74. Shapiro MD, Nicholls KM, Groves BM, et al. Interrelationship between cardiac output and vascular resistance as determinants of effective arterial blood volume in cirrhotic patients. Kidney Int 1985;28:206-11.
75. Sato S, Ohnishi K, Sugita S, Okuda K. Splenic artery and superior mesenteric artery blood flow: nonsurgical doppler US measurement in healthy subjects and patients with chronic liver disease. Radiology 1987;164:347-52.
76. Iwao T, Toyonaga A, Sato M, Oho K, Sakai T, Tayama C, Nakano R, Tanikawa K. Effect of posture-induced blood volume expansion on systemic and regional hemodynamics in patients with cirrhosis. J Hepatol 1997;27:484-91.
77. Colombato L, Albillos A, Groszmann R. The role of blood volume in the development of sodium retention in portal hypertensive rats. Gastroenterology 1996;110:193-8.
78. Lenz K, Druml W, Hortnagl H, et al. Improvement of renal haemodynamics in decompensated cirrhosis with ornipressin. J Hepatol 1989;9(1 Suppl):S181.
79. Lenz K, Hortnagl H, Druml W, et al. Ornipressin in the treatment of functional renal failure in decompensated liver cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1991;101:1060-7.
80. Guevara M, Gines P, Fernandez-Esparrach G, et al. Reversibility of hepatorenal syndrome by prolonged administration of ornipressin and plasma volume expansion. Hepatology 1988;27:35-41.
81. Laffi G, Foschi M, Masini E, et al. Increased production of nitric oxide by neutrophils and monocytes from cirrhotic patients with ascites and hyperdynamic circulation. Hepatology 1995;22:1666-73.
82. Ros J, Jimenez W, Lamas S, Claria J, Arroyo V, Rivera F, Rodes J. Nitric oxide production in arterial vessels of cirrhotic rats. Hepatology 1995;21:554-60.
83. Sogni P, Garnier P, Gadano A, Moreau R, Dall'Ava-Santucci J, Dinh-Xuan AT, Lebrec D. Endogenous pulmonary nitric oxide production measured from exhaled air is increased in patients with severe cirrhosis. J Hepatol 1995;23:471-3.
84. Weigert AL, Martin P-Y, Schrier RW. Vascular hyporesponsiveness in cirrhotic rats: role of different nitric oxide synthase isoforms. Kidney Int 1997;52 (suppl 61):S41-4.
85. Niederberger M, Gines P, Tsai P, et al. Increased aortic cyclic guanosine monophosphate concentration in experimental cirrhosis in rats: evidence for a role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of arterial vasodilation in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1995;21:1625-31.
86. Campillo B, Chabrier P-E, Pelle G, Sediame S, Atlan G, Fouet P, Adnot S. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in the forearm arterial bed of patients with advanced cirrhosis. Hepatology 1995;22:1423-9.
87. Niederberger M, Martin P-Y, Gines P, et al. Normalization of nitric oxide production corrects arterial vasodilation and hyperdynamic circulation in cirrhotic rats. Gastroenterology 1995;109:1624-30.
88. Martin P-Y, Ohara M, Gines P, Xu D-L, St. John J, Niederberger M, Schrier RW. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition for one week improves renal sodium and water excretion in cirrhotic rats with ascites. J Clin Invest 1998;101:235-42.
89. Lopez-Talavera JC, Merrill WM, Groszmann RJ. Tumor necrosis factor α: a major contributor to the hyperdynamic circulation in prehepatic portal-hypertensive rats. Gastroenterology 1995;108:761-7.
90. Lopez-Talavera JC, Levitzki A, Martinez M, et al. Tyrosine kinase inhibition ameliorates the hyperdynamic state and decreases nitric oxide production in cirrhotic rats with portal hypertension and ascites. J Clin Invest 1997;100:664-70.
91. Chin-Dusting JPF, Rasaratanam B, Jennings GLR, et al. Effect of fluoroquinolone on the enhanced nitric oxide-induced peripheral vasodilation seen in cirrhosis. Ann Intern Med 1997;127:985-8.
92. Martin P, Gines P, Schrier R. Nitric oxide as a mediator of hemodynamic abnormalities and sodium and water retention in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1998;339:533-41.
93. Papadakis MA, Arieff AI. Unpredictability of clinical evaluation of renal function in cirrhosis. Am J Med 1987;82:945-52.
94. Boyer TD, Warnock DG. Use of diuretics in the treatment of cirrhotic ascites. Gastroenterology 1983;84:1051-5.
95. Wong F, Massie D, Colman J, Dudley F. Glomerular hyperfiltration in patients with well-compensated alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1993;104:884-9.
96. Klingler E, Vaamonde CA, Vaamonde LS, et al. Renal function changes in cirrhosis of the liver. Arch Intern Med 1970;125:1010-5.
97. Chiandussi L, Bartoli E, Arras S. Reabsorption of sodium in the proximal renal tubule in cirrhosis of the liver. Gut 1978;19:497-503.
98. Schedl HP, Bartter FC. An explanation for an experimental correction of the abnormal water diuresis in cirrhosis. J Clin Invest 1960;39:248-61.
99. Angeli P, Gatta A, Caregaro L, et al. Tubular site of renal sodium retention in ascitic liver cirrhosis evaluated by lithium clearance. Eur J Clin Invest 1990;20:111-7.
100. Wood LJ, Massie D, McLean AJ, Dudley FJ. Renal sodium retention in cirrhosis: Tubular site and relation to hepatic dysfunction. Hepatology 1988;8:831-6.
101. Earley LE, Martino JA. Influence of sodium balance on the ability of diuretics to inhibit tubular reabsorption. Circulation 1970;42:323-34.
102. Bank N, Aynedjian HS. A micropuncture study of renal salt and water retention in chronic bile duct obstruction. J Clin Invest 1975;55:994-1002.
103. Better OS, Massry SG. Effect of chronic bile duct obstruction on renal handling of salt and water. J Clin Invest 1972;51:402-11.
104. Melman A, Massry SG. Role of renal vasodilation in the blunted natriuresis of saline infusion in dogs with chronic bile duct obstruction. J Lab Clin Med 1977;89:1053-65.
105. Chaimovitz C, Szylman P, Alroy G, Better OS. Mechanism of increased renal tubular sodium reabsorption in cirrhosis. Am J Med 1972;52:198-202.
106. Epstein M, Ramachandran M, De Nunzio AG. Interrelationship of renal sodium and phosphate handling in cirrhosis. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1982;7:305-15.
107. Perez-Ayuso RM, Arroyo V, Planas R, et al. Randomized comparative study of efficacy of furosemide versus spironolactone in nonazotemic cirrhosis with ascites. Gastroenterology 1983;84:961-8.
108. Levy M. Sodium retention in dogs with cirrhosis and ascites: efferent mechanisms. Am J Physiol 1977;233:F586-92.
109. DiBona GF, Herman PJ, Sawin LL. Neural control of renal function in edema-forming states. Am J Physiol 1988;254:R1017-24.
110. DiBona GF, Sawin LL. Role of renal nerves in sodium retention of cirrhosis and congestive heart failure. Am J Physiol 1991;260:R298-305.
111. Koepke JP, Jones S, DiBona GF. Renal nerves mediate blunted natriuresis to atrial natriuretic peptide in cirrhotic rats. Am J Physiol 1987;252:R1019-23.
112. Rodriguez-Martinez M, Sawin LL, DiBona GF. Arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of renal nerve activity in cirrhosis. Am J Physiol 1995;268:R117-29.
113. Matsuda T, Morita H, Hosomi H, Okada M. Response of renal nerve activity to high NaCl food intake in dogs with chronic bile duct ligation. Hepatology 1996;23:303-9.
114. Ring-Larsen H, Hesse B, Henriksen JH, Christensen NJ. Sympathetic nervous activity and renal and systemic hemodynamics in cirrhosis: plasma norepinephrine concentration, hepatic extraction, and renal release. Hepatology 1982;2:304-10.
115. Epstein M, Larios O, Johnson G. Effects of water immersion on plasma catecholamines in decompensated cirrhosis. Implications for deranged sodium and water homeostasis. Miner Electrolytes Metab 1985;11:25-34.
116. Esler M, Dudley F, Jennings G, et al. Increased sympathetic nervous activity and the effects of its inhibition with clonidine in alcoholic cirrhosis. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:446-55.
117. Roulot D, Moreau R, Gaudin C, et al. Long-term sympathetic and hemodynamic responses to clonidine in patients with cirrhosis and ascites. Gastroenterology 1992;102:1309-18.
118. Better O, Schrier RW. Disturbed volume homeostasis in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Kidney Int 1983;23:303-11.
119. DiBona GF. Renal neural activity in hepatorenal syndrome. Kidney Int 1984;25:841-53.
120. Ring-Larsen H, Henriksen JH, Christensen NJ. Increased sympathetic activity in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1983;308:1029.
121. Bataller R, Gines P, Guevara M, Arroyo V. Hepatorenal syndrome. Semin Liver Dis 1997;17:233-47.
122. Epstein M, Berk DP, Hollenberg NK, et al. Renal failure in the patient with cirrhosis. Am J Med 1970;49:175-85.
123. Chonko AM, Bay WH, Stein J, Ferris TF. The role of renin and aldosterone in the salt retention of edema. Am J Med 1977;63:881-9.
124. Epstein M, Levinson R, Sancho J, Haber E, Re R. Characterization of the renin-aldosterone system in decompensated cirrhosis. Circ Res 1977;41:818-29.
125. Epstein M. Renal sodium handling in liver disease. In: Epstein M, ed. The kidney in liver disease: 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1988:3-30.
126. Eggert RC. Spironolactone diuresis in patients with cirrhosis and ascites. Br Med J 1970;4:401-3.
127. Nicholls KM, Shapiro MD, Kluge R, Chung H, Bichet DG, Schrier RW. Sodium excretion in advanced cirrhosis: effect of expansion of central blood volume and suppression of plasma aldosterone. Hepatology 1986;6:235-8.
128. Bernardi M, Di Marco C, Trevisani F, et al. Renal sodium retention during upright posture in preascitic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1993;105:188-93.
129. Zambraski EJ, Dunn MJ. Importance of renal prostaglandins in control of renal function after chronic ligation of the common bile duct in dogs. J Lab Clin Med 1984;103:549-59.
130. Arroyo V, Planas R, Gaya J, et al. Sympathetic nervous activity, renin-angiotensin system and renal excretion of prostaglandin E2 in cirrhosis. Relationship to functional renal failure and sodium and water excretion. Eur J Clin Invest 1983;13:271-8.
131. Boyer TD, Zia P, Reynolds TB. Effect of indomethacin and prostaglandin A1 on renal function and plasma renin activity in alcoholic liver disease. Gastroenterology 1979;77:215-22.
132. Mirouze D, Zisper RD, Reynolds TB. Effects of inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis on induced diuresis in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1983;3:50-5.
133. Epstein M, Lifschitz M, Ramachandran M, Rappaport K. Characterization of renal PGE responsiveness in decompensated cirrhosis: implications for renal sodium handling. Clin Sci 1982;63:555-63.
134. Laragh JH, Cannon PJ, Bentzel CJ, Sicinski AM, Meltzer JI. Angiotensin II, norepinephrine, and renal transport of electrolytes and water in normal man and in cirrhosis with ascites. J Clin Invest 1963;42:1179-92.
135. Zipser RD, Hoefs JC, Speckart PF, Zia PK, Horton R. Prostaglandins: modulators of renal function and pressor resistance in chronic liver disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979;48:895-900.
136. Palmer BF. Renal complications associated with use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. J Investig Med 1995;43:516-33.
137. Perez-Ayuso RM, Arroyo V, Camps J, et al. Renal kallikrein excretion in cirrhosis with ascites: relationship to renal hemodynamics. Hepatology 1984;4:247-52.
138. MacGilchrist A, Craig KJ, Hayes PC, Cumming AD. Effect of the serine protease inhibitor, aprotinin, on systemic haemodynamics and renal function in patients with hapatic cirrhosis and ascites. Clin Sci 1994;87:329-35.
139. Wirth KJ, Bickel M, Hropot M, Gunzler V, Heitsch H, Ruppert D, Scholkens BA. The bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist Icatibant (HOE 140) corrects avid Na+ retention in rats with CCL4-induced liver cirrhosis: possible role of enhanced microvascular leakage. Eur J Pharmacol 1997;337:45-53.
140. Atlas SA, Epstein M. Atrial natriuretic factor: implications in cirrhosis and other edematous disorders. In: Epstein M, ed. The kidney in liver disease: 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1988:429-55.
141. Jimenez W, Martinez-Pardo A, Arroyo V, Gaya J, Rivera F, Rodes J. Atrial natriuretic factor: reduced cardiac content in cirrhotic rats with ascites. Am J Physiol 1986;250:F749-52.
142. Skorecki KL, Leung WM, Campbell P, et al. Role of atrial natriuretic peptide in the natriuretic response to central volume expansion induced by head-out water immersion in sodium-retaining cirrhotic subjects. Am J Med 1988;85:375-82.
143. Maher E, Cernacek P, Levy M. Heterogeneous renal responses to atrial natriuretic factor II. Cirrhotic dogs. Am J Physiol 1989;257:R1068-74.
144. Gerbes AL, Kollenda MC, Vollmar AM, Reichen J, Vakil N, Scarborough RM. Altered density of glomerular binding sites for atrial natriuretic factor in bile duct-ligated rats with ascites. Hepatology 1991;13:562-6.
145. Panos MZ, Gove C, Firth JD, Raine AEG, Ledingham JGG, Westaby D, Williams R. Impaired natriuretic response to atrial natriuretic peptide in the isolated kidney of rats with experimental cirrhosis. Clin Sci 1990;79:67-71.
146. Legault L, Cernacek P, Levy M, Maher E, Farber D. Renal tubular responsiveness to atrial natriuretic peptide in sodium-retaining chronic caval dogs: a possible role for kinins and luminal actions of the peptide. J Clin Invest 1992;90:1425-35.
147. Lopez C, Jimenez W, Arroyo V, et al. Role of altered systemic hemodynamics in the blunted renal response to atrial natriuretic peptide in rats with cirrhosis and ascites. J Hepatol 1989;9:217-26.
148. Morali GA, Tobe SW, Skorecki KL, Blendis LM. Refractory ascites: modulation of atrial natriuretic factor unresponsiveness by mannitol. Hepatology 1992;16:42-8.
149. La Villa G, Riccardi D, Lazzeri C, et al. Blunted natriuretic response to low-dose brain natriuretic peptide infusion in nonazotemic cirrhotic patients with ascites and avid sodium retention. Hepatology 1995;22:1745-50.
150. Fernandez-Rodriguez C, Prada I, Prieto J, Montuenga L, Elssasser T, Quiroga J, Moreiras M, Andrade A, Cuttitta F. Circulating adrenomedullin in cirrhosis: relationship to hyperdynamic circulation. J Hepatol 1998;98:250-6.
151. Salo J, Jimenez W, Kuhn M, et al. Urinary excretion of urodilatin in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 1996;24:1428-32.
152. Moore K, Wendon J, Frazer M, Karani J, Williams R, Badr K. Plasma endothelin immunoreactivity in liver disease and the hepatorenal syndrome. N Engl J Med 327:1774-8.
153. Runyon BA. Care of patients with ascites. N Engl J Med 1994;330:337-42.
154. Ring-Larsen H, Henriksen JH, Wilken C, et al. Diuretic treatment in decompensated cirrhosis and congestive heart failure: effect of posture. Br Med J 1986;292:1351-3.
155. Trevisani F, Bernardi M, Gasbarrini G, et al. Bed-rest-induced hypernatriuresis in cirrhotic patients without ascites: does it contribute to maintain 'compensation'? J Hepatol 1992;16:190-6.
156. Salo J, Guevara M, Fernandez-Esparrach G, et al. Impairment of renal function during moderate physical exercise in cirrhotic patients with ascites: relationship with the activity of neurohormonal systems. Hepatology 1997;25:1338-42.
157. Pinzani M, Daskalopoulos G, Laffi G, et al. Altered furosemide pharmacokinetics in chronic alcoholic liver disease with ascites contributes to diuretic resistance. Gastroenterology 1987;92:294-6.
158. Brater DC. Diuretic therapy. N Engl J Med 1998;339:387-95.
159. Garcia-Pagan JC, Salmeron JM, Feu F, et al. Effects of low-sodium diet and spironolactone on portal pressure in patients with compensated cirrhosis. Hepatology 1994;19:1095-9.
160. Pockros PJ, Reynolds TB. Rapid diuresis in patients with ascites from chronic liver disease: the importance of peripheral edema. Gastroenterology 1986;90:1827-33.
161. Runyon BA. Patient selection is important in studying the impact of large-volume paracentesis on intravascular volume. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:371-3.
162. Runyon BA. Management of adult patients with ascites caused by cirrhosis. Hepatology 1998;27:264-72.
163. Pozzi M, Osculati G, Boari G, et al. Time course of circulatory and humoral effects of rapid total paracentesis in cirrhotic patients with tense, refractory ascites. Gastroenterology 1994;106:709-19.
164. Luca A, Feu F, Garcia-Pagan JC, et al. Favorable effects of total paracentesis on splanchnic hemodynamics in cirrhotic patients with tense ascites. Hepatology 1994;20:30-3.
165. Kravetz D, Romero G, Argonz J, et al. Total volume paracentesis decreases variceal pressure, size, and variceal wall tension in cirrhotic patients. Hepatology 1997;25:59-62.
166. Gines P, Tito L, Arroyo V, et al. Randomized comparative study of therapeutic paracentesis with and without intravenous albumin in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1988;94:1493-1502.
167. Gines A, Fernandez-Esparrach G, Monescillo A, et al. Randomized trial comparing albumin, dextran 70, and polygeline in cirrhotic patients with ascites treated by paracentesis. Gastroenterology 1996;111:1002-10.
168. Luca A, Garcia-Pagan JC, Bosch J, et al. Beneficial effects of intravenous albumin infusion on the hemodynamic and humoral changes after total paracentesis. Hepatology 1995;22:753-8.
169. Pinto PC, Amerian J, Reynolds TB. Large-volume paracentesis in nonedematous patients with tense ascites: its effect on intravascular volume. Hepatology 1988;8:207-10.
170. Peltekian KM, Wong F, Liu PP, et al. Cardiovascular, renal, and neurohormonal responses to single large-volume paracentesis in patients with cirrhosis and diuretic-resistant ascites. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:394-9.
171. Moller S, Bendtsen F, Henriksen JH. Effect of volume expansion on systemic hemodynamics and central and arterial blood volume in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1995;109:1917-25.
172. Epstein M. Peritoneovenous shunt in the management of ascites and the hepatorenal syndrome. Gastroenterology 1982;82:790-9.
173. Tobe SW, Morali GA, Greig PD, et al. Peritoneovenous shunting restores atrial natriuretic factor responsiveness in refractory hepatic ascites. Gastroenterology 1993;105:202-7.
174. Stanley MM, Ochi S, Lee KK, et al Peritoneovenous shunting as compared with medical treatment in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis and massive ascites. N Engl J Med 1989;321:1632-8.
175. Gines P, Arroyo V, Vargas V, et al. Paracentesis with intravenous infusion of albumin as compared with peritoneovenous shunting in cirrhosis with refractory ascites. N Engl J Med 1991;325:829-35.
176. Somberg KA, Lake JR, Tomlanovich SJ, et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts for refractory ascites: assessment of clinical and hormonal response and renal function. Hepatology 1995;21:709-16.
177. Wong F, Sniderman K, Liu P, et al. The mechanism of the initial natriuresis after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt. Gastroenterology 1997;112:899-907.
178. Wong F, Sniderman K, Liu P, et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent shunt: effects on hemodynamics and sodium homeostasis in cirrhosis and refractory ascites. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:816-22.
179. Guevara M, Gines P, Bandi J, Gilabert R, Sort P, Jimenez W, Garcia-Pagan J, Bosch J, Arroyo V, Rodes J. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in hepatorenal syndrome: effects on renal function and vasoactive systems. Hepatology 1998;28:416-22.
180. Lebrec D, Giuily N, Hadengue A, et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts: comparison with paracentesis in patients with cirrhosis and refractory ascites: a randomized trial. J Hepatol 1996;25:135-44.
181. Sanyal AJ, Freedman AM, Luketic VA, et al. The natural history of portal hypertension after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Gastroenterology 1997;112:889-98.