Nuclear movement in filamentous fungi

FEMS Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 39-68

  Fischer, Reinhard ^a  

^a PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Aspergillus nidulans; Cytoskeleton; Green fluorescent protein; Motor protein; Nuclear migration; Organelle movement

Indexed keywords

PROTEIN;

ANALYTIC METHOD; CELL DIVISION; CELL NUCLEUS; CELL ORGANELLE; CELL VACUOLE; CHLOROPLAST; CYTOKINESIS; CYTOSKELETON; DEVELOPMENT; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; EUKARYOTE; EUKARYOTIC CELL; FUNGUS; GOLGI COMPLEX; MITOCHONDRION; MITOSIS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PEROXISOME; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW;

EID: 0032966636     PISSN: 01686445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0168-6445(98)00032-1     Document Type: Article

References (231)

1. Buller, A.H.R. (1931) Researches on Fungi, Vol. IV (Longmans and Green, Eds.), Hafner Publishing Co., New York.
2. Kothe, E. (1996) Tetrapolar fungal mating types: Sexes by the thousands. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 18, 65-87.
3. Kronstad, J.W. and Staben, C. (1997) Mating type in filamentous fungi. Annu. Rev. Genet. 31, 245-276.
4. Casselton, L.A. and Olesnicky, N.S. (1998) Molecular genetics of mating recognition in basidiomycete fungi. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62, 55-70.
5. Niederpruem, D.J. (1980) Direct studies of dikaryotization in Schizophyllum commune. 1. Live intercellular migration patterns. Arch. Microbiol. 128, 162-171.
6. Raudaskoski, M. (1998) The relationship between B-mating-type genes and nuclear migration in Schizophyllum commune. Fungal Genet. Biol. 24, 207-227.
7. Ross, I.K. (1976) Nuclear migration rates in Coprinus congregatus: A new record? Mycologia 68, 418-422.
8. McKerracher, L.J. and Heath, L.B. (1987) Cytoplasmic migration and intracellular organelle movements during tip growth of fungal hyphae. Exp. Mycol. 11, 79-100.
9. Gow, N.A.R. (1994) Growth and guidance of the fungal hypha. Microbiology 140, 3193-3205.
10. Reynaga-Peña, C.G., Gierz, G. and Bartnicki-Garcia, S. (1997) Analysis of the role of the Spitzenkörper in fungal morphogenesis by computer simulation of apical branching in Aspergillus niger. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 9096-9101.
11. Harris, S.D. and Kraus, P.R. (1998) Regulation of septum formation in Aspergillus nidulans by a DNA damage checkpoint pathway. Genetics 148, 1055-1067.
12. Kamada, T. and Tanabe, S. (1995) The role of the cytoskeleton in the movement and positioning of nuclei in Coprinus cinereus. Can. J. Bot. 73, S364-S368.
13. Kaminskyj, S.G.W., Yoon, K.S. and Heath, I.B. (1989) Cytoskeletal interactions with post-mitotic migrating nuclei in the oyster mushroom fungus, Pleurotus ostreatus: evidence against a force-generating role for astral microtubules. J. Cell Sci. 94, 663-674.
14. Morris, N.R. (1976) Mitotic mutants of Aspergillus nidulans. Genet. Res. 26, 237-254.
15. Suelmann, R., Sievers, N. and Fischer, R. (1997) Nuclear traffic in fungal hyphae: In vivo study of nuclear migration and positioning in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 25, 757-769.
16. Herr, F.B. and Heath, M.C. (1982) The effect of antimicrotubule agents on organelle positioning in the cowpea rust fungus, Uromyces phaseoli var. vignae. Exp. Mycol. 6, 15-24.
17. Girbardt, M. (1955) Lebendbeobachtungen an Polystictus versicolor. Flora 142, 540-563.
18. Dowding, E.S. (1958) Nuclear streaming in Gelasinospora. Can. J. Microbiol. 4, 295-301.
19. Dowding, E.S. and Bakerspigel, A. (1954) The migrating nucleus. Can. J. Microbiol. 1, 68-78.
20. Dowding, E.S. and Buller, A.H.R. (1940) Nuclear migration in Gelasinospora. Mycologia 32, 471-488.
21. Bago, B., Zipfel, W., Williams, R.M., Chamberland, H., Lafontaine, J.G., Webb, W.W. and Piché, Y. (1998) In vivo studies on the nuclear behavior of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora rosea grown under axenic conditions. Protoplasma 203, 1-15.
22. Clutterbuck, A.J. (1970) Synchronous nuclear division and septation in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 60, 133-135.
23. Robinow, C.F. and Caten, C.E. (1969) Mitosis in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Cell Sci. 5, 403-431.
24. Fernandez-Abalos, J.M., Fox, H., Pitt, C., Wells, B. and Doonan, J.H. (1998) Plant-adapted green fluorescent protein is a versatile vital reporter for gene expression, protein localization and mitosis in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 27, 121-130.
25. Osmani, A.H., Osmani, S.A. and Morris, N.R. (1990) The molecular cloning and identification of a gene product specifically required for nuclear movement in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Cell Biol. 111, 543-551.
26. Jung, M.K., Wilder, I.B. and Oakley, B.R. (1992) Amino acid alterations in the benA (β-tubulin) gene of Aspergillus nidulans that confer benomyl resistance. Cell. Motil. Cytoskel. 22, 170-174.
27. Torralba, S., Raudaskoski, M., Pedregosa, A.M. and Laborda, F. (1998) Effect of cytochalasin A on apical growth, actin cytoskeleton organization and enzyme secretion in Aspergillus nidulans. Microbiology 144, 45-53.
28. Oakley, B.R. and Morris, N.R. (1980) Nuclear movement is β-tubulin-dependent in Aspergillus nidulans. Cell 19, 255-262.
29. Steinberg, G. and Schliwa, M. (1993) Organelle movements in the wild type and wall-less fz;sg;os-1 mutants of Neurospora crassa are mediated by cytoplasmic microtubules. J. Cell Sci. 106, 555-564.
30. Oakley, B.R. and Rinehart, J.E. (1985) Mitochondria and nuclei move by different mechanisms in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Cell Biol. 101, 2392-2397.
31. Timberlake, W.E. and Marshall, M.A. (1989) Genetic engineering of filamentous fungi. Science 244, 1313-1317.
32. Adams, T.H., Wieser, J.K. and Yu, J.-H. (1998) Asexual sporulation in Aspergillus nidulans. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62, 35-54.
33. Ebbole, D.J. (1996) Morphogenesis and vegetative differentiation in filamentous fungi. J. Genet. 75, 361-374.
34. Clutterbuck, A.J. (1997) The validity of the Aspergillus nidulans linkage map. Fungal Genet. Biol. 21, 267-277.
35. Clutterbuck, A.J. (1969) A mutational analysis of conidial development in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 63, 317-327.
36. Clutterbuck, A.J. (1994) Mutants of Aspergillus nidulans deficient in nuclear migration during hyphal growth and conidiation. Microbiology 140, 1169-1174.
37. Jarvik, J. and Botstein, D. (1975) Conditional-lethal mutations that suppress genetic defects in morphogenesis by altering structural proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 72, 2738-2742.
38. Morris, N.R. and Enos, A.P. (1992) Mitotic gold in a mold: Aspergillus genetics and the biology of mitosis. Trends Genet. 8, 32-37.
39. Krüger, M. and Fischer, R. (1996) Isolation of two apsA suppressor strains in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 144, 533-540.
40. Willins, D.A., Xiang, X. and Morris, N.R. (1995) An alpha tubulin mutation suppresses nuclear migration mutations in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 141, 1287-1298.
41. Goldman, G.H. and Morris, N.R. (1995) Extragenic suppressors of a dynein mutation that blocks nuclear migration in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 139, 1223-1232.
42. Plamann, M., Minke, P.F., Tinsley, J.H. and Bruno, K.S. (1994) Cytoplasmic dynein and actin-related protein Arp1 are required for normal nuclear distribution in filamentous fungi. J. Cell Biol. 127, 139-149.
43. Sievers, N., Bertsch, E. and Fischer, R. (1998) Isolation of nuclear migration mutants of Aspergillus nidulans using GFP expressing strains. Mycol. Res. (in press).
44. Seiler, S., Nargang, F.E., Steinberg, G. and Schliwa, M. (1997) Kinesin is essential for cell morphogenesis and polarized secretion in Neurospora crassa. EMBO J. 16, 3025-3034.
45. Steinberg, G. and Schliwa, M. (1995) The Neurospora organelle motor: a distant relative of conventional kinesin with unconventional properties. Mol. Biol. Chem. 6, 1605-1618.
46. Steinberg, G. and Schliwa, M. (1996) Characterization of the biophysical and motility properties of kinesin from the fungus Neurospora crassa. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 7516-7521.
47. May, K.M. and Hyams, J.S. (1998) The yeast cytoskeleton: The closer we look the more we see. Fungal Genet. Biol. 24, 110-122.
48. Nogales, E., Wolf, S.G. and Downing, K.H. (1998) Structure of the αβ tubulin dimer by electron crystallography. Nature 391, 199-203.
49. Doshi, P., Bossie, C.A., Doonan, J.H., May, G.S. and Morris, N.R. (1991) Two α-tubulin genes of Aspergillus nidulans encode divergent proteins. Mol. Gen. Genet. 225, 129-141.
50. May, G.S., Tsang, M.L.-S., Smith, H., Fidel, S. and Morris, N.R. (1987) Aspergillus nidulans β-tubulin genes are unusually divergent. Gene 55, 231-243.
51. Oakley, B.R. (1995) γ-Tubulin and the fungal microtubule cytoskeleton. Can. J. Bot. 73 (Suppl. 1), S352-S358.
52. Oakley, B.R. (1995) A nice ring to the centrosome. Nature 378, 555-556.
53. Oakley, C.E. and Oakley, B.R. (1989) Identification of gamma-tubulin, a new member of the tubulin superfamily encoded by mipA gene of Aspergillus nidulans. Nature 338, 662-664.
54. Oakley, B.R., Oakley, C.E., Yoon, Y. and Jung, K.M. (1990) γ-Tubulin is a component of the spindle pole body in Aspergillus nidulans. Cell 61, 1289-1301.
55. Thaler, C.D. and Haimo, L.T. (1996) Microtubules and microtubule motors: Mechanisms of regulation. Int. Rev. Cytol. 164, 269-327.
56. Jung, M.K., May, G.S. and Oakley, B.R. (1998) Mitosis in wild-type and β-tubulin mutant strains of Aspergillus nidulans. Fungal Genet. Biol. 24, 146-160.
57. Palmer, R.E., Sullivan, D.S., Huffaker, T. and Koshland, D. (1992) Role of astral micro tubules and actin in spindle orientation and migration in the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Cell Biol. 119, 583-593.
58. Aist, J.M. and Berns, M.W. (1981) Mechanics of chromosome separation during mitosis in Fusarium (Fungi imperfecti): New evidence from ultrastructural and laser microbeam experiments. J. Cell Biol. 91, 446-458.
59. Meyer, S.L.F., Kaminskyj, S.G.W. and Heath, I.B. (1988) Nuclear migration in a nud mutant is inihibited in the presence of a quantitatively normal population of cytoplasmic microtubules. J. Cell Biol. 106, 773-778.
60. Doonan, J.H. (1992) Cell division in Aspergillus. J. Cell Sci. 103, 599-611.
61. Hoch, H.C. and Staples, R.C. (1985) The microtubule cytoskeleton in hyphae of Uromyces phaseoli germlings: Its relationship to the region of nucleation and to the F-actin cytoskeleton. Protoplasma 124, 112-122.
62. McDaniel, D.P. and Roberson, R.W. (1998) γ-Tubulin is a component of the Spitzenkörper and centrosomes in hyphaltip cells of Allomyces macrogynus. Protoplasma 203, 118-123.
63. Eidel, S., Doonan, J.H. and Morris, N.R. (1988) Aspergillus nidulans contains a single actin gene which has unique intron locations and encodes a γ-actin. Gene 70, 283-293.
64. Mulholland, J., Preuss, D., Moon, A., Wong, A., Drubin, D. and Botstein, D. (1994) Ultrastructure of the yeast actin cytoskeleton and its association with the plasma membrane. J. Cell Biol. 125, 381-391.
65. Bachewich, C.L. and Heath, I.B. (1997) The cytoplasmic pH influences hyphal tip growth and cytoskeleton-related organization. Fungal Genet. Biol. 21, 76-91.
66. Reynaga-Pena, C.G. and Bartnicki-Garcia, S. (1997) Apical branching in a temperature sensitive mutant of Aspergillus niger. Fungal Genet. Biol. 22, 153-167.
67. McGoldrick, C.A., Graver, C. and May, G.S. (1995) myoA of Aspergillus nidulans encodes an essential myosin I required for secretion and polarized growth. J. Cell Biol. 128, 577-587.
68. McConnell, S.J. and Yaffee, M.P. (1992) Nuclear and mitochondrial inheritance in yeast depends on novel cytoplasmic structures defined by the MDM1 protein. J. Cell Biol. 118, 385-395.
69. McConnell, S.J. and Yaffe, M.P. (1993) Intermediate filament formation by a yeast protein essential for organelle inheritance. Science 260, 687-689.
70. Howard, J. (1997) Molecular motors: Strucutral adaptations to cellular functions. Nature 389, 561-567.
71. Spudich, J.A. (1994) How molecular motors work. Nature 372, 515-518.
72. Inoue, S., Turgeon, B.G., Yoder, O.C. and Aist, J.R. (1998) Role of fungal dynein in hyphal growth, microtubule organization, spindle pole body motility and nuclear migration. J. Cell Sci. 111, 1555-1566.
73. Steinberg, G. (1998) Organelle transport and molecular motors in fungi. Fungal Genet. Biol. 24, 161-177.
74. Holzbaur, E.L.F. and Vallee, R.B. (1994) Dyneins: Molecular
75. structure and cellular function. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 10, 339-372.
76. Hoyt, M.A. (1994) Cellular roles of kinesin and related proteins. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 6, 63-68.
77. Schroer, T.A. (1994) Structure, function and regulation of cytoplasmic dynein. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 6, 69-73.
78. Walker, R.A. and Sheetz, M.P. (1993) Cytoplasmic microtubule-associated motors. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 62, 429-451.
79. Vallee, R.B. and Shpetner, H.S. (1990) Motor proteins of cytoplasmic microtubules. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 59, 909-932.
80. Henningsen, U. and Schliwa, M. (1997) Reversal in the direction of movement of a molecular motor. Nature 389, 93-96.
81. Hirokawa, N. (1998) Kinesin and dynein superfamily proteins and the mechanism of organelle transport. Science 279, 519-526.
82. Case, R.B., Pierce, D.W., Hom-Booher, N., Hart, C.L. and Vale, R.D. (1997) The directional preference of kinesin motors is specified by an element outside of the motor catalytic domain. Cell 90, 959-966.
83. Vale, R.D., Malik, F. and Brown, D. (1992) Directional instability of microtubule transport in the presence of kinesin and dynein, two opposite polarity motor proteins. J. Cell Biol. 119, 1589-1596.
84. Gelles, J., Schnapp, B.J. and Sheetz, M.P. (1988) Tracking kinesin-driven movements with nanometer-scale precision. Nature 331, 450-453.
85. Wang, Z., Khan, S. and Sheetz, M.P. (1995) Single cytoplasmic dynein molecule movements: Characterization and comparison with kinesin. Biophys. J. 69, 2011-2023.
86. Xiang, X., Beckwith, S.M. and Morris, N.R. (1994) Cytoplasmic dynein is involved in nuclear migration in Aspergillus nidulans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 2100-2104.
87. Ruppel, K.M. and Spudich, J.A. (1996) Structure-function analysis of the motor domain of myosin. Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 12, 543-573.
88. Yamashita, R.A. and May, G.S. (1998) Constitutive activation of endocytosis by mutation of myoA, the myosin I gene of Aspergillus nidulans. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 14644-14648.
89. Chiu, Y.H., Xiang, X., Dawe, A.L. and Morris, N.R. (1997) Deletion of nudC, a nuclear migration gene of Aspergillus nidulans, causes morphological and cell wall abnormalities and is lethal. Mol. Biol. Cell 8, 1735-1749.
90. Chiu, Y.H. and Morris, N.R. (1995) Extragenic suppressors of nudC3, a mutation that blocks nuclear migration in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 141, 453-4-64.
91. Leu missense suppressor of nudC3, a mutation that blocks nuclear migration in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 145, 707-714.
92. Cunniff, J., Chiu, Y.H., Morris, N.R. and Warrior, R. (1997) Characterization of DnudC, the Drosophila homolog of an Aspergillus gene that functions in nuclear motility. Mech. Dev. 66, 55-68.
93. Morris, S.M., Anaya, P., Xiang, X., Morris, N.R., May, G.S. and Yu-Lee, L. (1997) A prolactin-inducible T cell gene product is structurally similar to the Aspergillus nidulans nuclear movement protein NUDC, Mol. Endocrinol. 11, 229-236.
94. Xiang, X., Osmani, A.H., Osmani, S.A., Xin, M. and Morris, N.R. (1995) NudF, a nuclear migration gene in Aspergillus nidulans, is similar to the human LIS-1 gene required for neuronal migration. Mol. Biol. Cell 6, 297-310.
95. Morris, S.M., Albrecht, U., Reiner, O., Eichele, G. and Yu-Lee, L.-y. (1998) The lissencephaly gene product Lis1, a protein involved in neuronal migration, interacts with a nuclear movement protein, NudC. Curr. Biol. 8, 603-609.
96. Bölker, M. (1998) Sex and crime: Heterotrimeric G-proteins in fungal mating and pathogenesis. Fungal Genet. Biol. (in press).
97. Reiner, O., Carrozzo, R., Shen, Y., Wehnert, M., Faustinella, F., Dobyns, W.B., Caskey, C.T. and Ledbetter, D.H. (1993) Isolation of a Miller-Dieker lissencephaly gene containing G protein β-subunit-like repeats. Nature 364, 717-721.
98. Nigro, C.L., Chong, C.S., Smith, A.C., Dobyns, W.B., Carrozzo, R. and Ledbetter, D.H. (1997) Point mutations and an intragenic deletion in LIS1, the lissencephaly causative gene in isolated lissencephaly sequence and Miller-Dieker syndrome. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 157-164.
99. Hattori, M., Adachi, H., Tsujimoto, M., Arai, N. and Inoue, K. (1994) Miller-Dieker lissencephaly gene encodes a subunit of brain platelet-activating factor. Nature 370, 216-218.
100. Sapir, T., Elbaum, M. and Reiner, O. (1997) Reduction of micro tubule catastrophe events by LIS1, platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase subunit. EMBO J. 16, 6977-6984.
101. Geiser, J.R., Schott, E.J., Kingsbury, T.J., Cole, N.B., Totis, L.J., Bhattacharyya, G., He, L. and Hoyt, M.A. (1997) Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes required in the absence of the CIN8-encoded spindle motor act in functionally diverse mitotic pathways. Mol. Biol. Chem. 8, 1035-1050.
102. Xiang, X., Roghi, C. and Morris, N.R. (1995) Characterization and localization of the cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain in Aspergillus nidulans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 9890-9894.
103. Willins, D.A., Liu, B., Xiang, X. and Morris, N.R. (1997) Mutations in the heavy chain of cytoplasmic cynein suppress the nudF nuclear migration mutation of Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Gen. Genet. 255, 194-200.
104. Efimov, V.P. and Morris, N.R. (1998) A screen for dynein synthetic lethals in Aspergillus nidulans identifies spindle assembly checkpoint genes and other genes involved in mitosis. Genetics 149, 101-116.
105. Garnjobst, L. and Tatum, E.L. (1967) A survey of new morphological mutants in Neurospora crassa. Genetics 57, 579-604.
106. Perkins, D.D., Radford, A., Newmeyer, D. and Bjorkman, M. (1982) Chromosomal loci of Neurospora crassa. Microbiol. Rev. 46, 426-570.
107. Yarden, O., Plamann, M., Ebbole, D.J. and Yanofsky, C. (1992) cot-1, a gene required for hyphal elongation in Neurospora crassa, encodes a protein kinase. EMBO J. 11, 2159-2166.
108. Robb, M.J., Wilson, M.A. and Vierula, P.J. (1995) A fungal actin-related protein involved in nuclear migration. Mol. Gen. Genet. 247, 583-590.
109. Lees-Miller, J.P., Helfman, D.M. and Schroer, T.A. (1992) A vertebrate actin-related protein is a component of a multi-subunit complex involved in microtubule-based vesicle motility. Nature 359, 244-246.
110. Fan, S.-S. and Ready, D.F. (1997) Glued participates in distinct microtubule-based activities in Drosophila eye development. Development 124, 1497-1507.
111. Bruno, K.S., Tinsley, J.H., Minke, P.F. and Plamann, M. (1996) Genetic interactions among cytoplasmic dynein, dynactin, and nuclear distribution mutants of Neurospora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 4775-4780.
112. Vierula, P.J. and Mais, J.M. (1997) A gene required for nuclear migration in Neurospora crassa codes for a protein with cysteine-rich, LIM/RING-like domains. Mol. Microbiol. 24, 331-340.
113. Glued, the largest subunit of the dynactin complex, is nonessential in Neurospora but required for nuclear distribution. Mol. Biol. Chem. 7, 731-742.
114. Sánchez-Garcia, I. and Rabbitts, T.H. (1994) The LIM domain: a new strucural motif found in zinc-finger-like proteins. Trends Genet. 10, 315-320.
115. Reddy, B.A., Etkin, L.D. and Freemont, P.S. (1992) A novel zinc finger coiled-coil domain in a family of nuclear proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 17, 344-345.
116. Cohen, G.B., Ren, R. and Baltimore, D. (1995) Modular binding domains in signal transduction proteins. Cell 80, 237-248.
117. Holzbaur, E.L.F., Hammarback, J.A., Paschal, B.M., Kravit, N.G., Pfister, K.K. and Vallee, R.B. (1991) Homology of a 15OK cytoplasmic dynein-associated polypeptide with the Drosophila gene glued. Nature 351, 578-583.
118. Gill, S.R., Schroer, T.A., Szilak, I., Steuer, E.R. and Sheetz, M.P. (1991) Dynactin, a conserved, ubiquitously expressed component of an activator of vesicle motility mediated by cytoplasmic dynein. J. Cell Biol. 115, 1639-1650.
119. Schafer, D.A., Gill, S.R., Cooper, J.A., Heuser, J.E. and Schroer, T.A. (1994) Ultrastructural analysis of the dynactin complex: An actin-related protein is a component of a filament that resembles F-actin. J. Cell Biol. 126, 403-412.
120. Schroer, T.A. and Sheetz, M.P. (1991) Two activators of microtubule-based vesicle transport. J. Cell Biol. 115, 1309-1318.
121. Muhua, L., Karpova, T.S. and Cooper, J.A. (1994) A yeast actin-related protein homolgous to that in vertebrate dynactin complex is important for spindle orientation and nuclear migration. Cell 78, 669-679.
122. Vaughan, K.T., Holzbaur, E.L.F. and Vallee, R.B. (1995) Subcellular targeting of the retrograde motor cytoplasmic dynein. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 23, 50-54.
123. Suelmann, R., Sievers, N., Galetzka, D., Robertson, L., Timberlake, W.E. and Fischer, R. (1998) Increased nuclear traffic chaos in hyphae of apsB mutants of Aspergillus nidulans: Molecular characterization of apsB and in vivo observation of nuclear behaviour. Mol. Microbiol. 30, 831-842.
124. Krüger, M. and Fischer, R. (1998) Integrity of a Zn-finger like domain in SamB is crucial for morphogenesis in ascomycetous fungi. EMBO J. 17, 204-214.
125. Fischer, R. and Timberlake, W.E. (1995) Aspergillus nidulans apsA (anucleate primary sterigmata) encodes a coiled-coil protein necessary for nuclear positioning and completion of asexual development. J. Cell Biol. 128, 485-498.
126. Gibson, T.J., Hyvönen, M., Musacchio, A. and Saraste, M. (1994) PH domain: the first anniversary. Trends Biochem. Sci. 19, 349-353.
127. Lemmon, M.A., Ferguson, K.M. and Schlessinger, J. (1996) PH domains: Diverse sequences with a common fold recruit signaling molecules to the cell surface. Cell 85, 621-624.
128. Musacchio, A., Gibson, T., Rice, P., Thompson, J. and Saraste, M. (1993) The PH domain: a common piece in the structural patchwork of signalling proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 18, 343-348.
129. Salim, K. et al. (1996) Distinct specificity in the recognition of phospoinositides by the pleckstrin homology domains of dynamin and Bruton's tyrosine kinase. EMBO J. 15, 6241-6250.
130. Ponting, C.P. and Bork, P. (1996) Pleckstrin's repeat performance: a novel domain in G-protein signaling? Trends Biochem. Sci. 21, 245-246.
131. Kormanec, J., Schaaff-Gerstenschläger, I., Zimmermann, R.K., Perecko, D. and Küntzel, H. (1991) Nuclear migration in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is controlled by the highly repetitive 313 kDa NUM1 protein. Mol. Gen. Genet. 230, 277-287.
132. Farkasovsky, M. and Küntzel, H. (1995) Yeast Num1p associates with the mother cell cortex during S/G2 phase and affects microtubular functions. J. Cell Biol. 131, 1003-1014.
133. Revardel, E. and Aigle, M. (1993) The NUM1 yeast gene: length polymorphism and physiological aspects of mutant phenotype. Yeast 9, 495-506.
134. de Queiroz, M.V. and de Azevedo, J.L. (1998) Characterizuation of an Aspergillus nidulans mutant with abnormal distribution of nuclei in hyphae, metulae, phialides and conidia. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 166, 49-55.
135. Byers, B. and Goetsch, L. (1975) Behavior of spindles and spindle plaques in the cell cycle and conjugation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Bacteriol. 124, 511-523.
136. Byers, B. (1981) Cytology of the yeast life cycle. In: The Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces: Life Cyle and Inheritance (Strathern, J.N., Jones, E.W. and Broach, J.R., Eds.), pp. 59-96. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
137. Yeh, E., Skibbens, R.V., Cheng, J.W., Salmon, E.D. and Bloom, K. (1995) Spindle dynamics and cell cycle regulation of dynein in the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Cell Biol. 130, 687-700.
138. Miller, R.K. and Rolse, M.D. (1998) Kar9p is a novel cortical protein required for cytoplasmic microtubule orientation in yeast. J. Cell Biol. 140, 377-390.
139. Marsh, L. and Rose, M.D. (1997) The pathway of cell and nuclear fusion during mating in Saccharomycec cerevisiae. In: Cell Cycle and Cell Biology (Pringle, J.R., Broach, F.R. and Jones, E.W., Eds.), pp. 827-888. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
140. Li, Y.Y., Yeh, E., Hays, T. and Bloom, K. (1993) Disruption of mitotic spindle orientation in a yeast dynein mutant. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 10096-10100.
141. Jacobs, C.W., Adams, A.E.M., Szaniszlo, P.J. and Pringle, J.R. (1988) Functions of microtubules in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell cycle. J. Cell Biol. 107, 1409-1426.
142. Huffacker, T.C., Thomas, J.H. and Botstein, D. (1988) Diverse effects of β-tubulin mutations on microtubule formation and function. J. Cell Biol. 106, 1997-2010.
143. Eshel, D., Urrestarazu, L.A., Vissers, S., Jauniaux, J.C., Van Vliet-Reedijk, J.C., Planta, R.J. and Gibbons, I.R. (1993) Cytoplasmic dynein is required for normal nuclear segregation in yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 11172-11176.
144. DeZwaan, T.M., Ellingson, E., Pellman, D. and Roof, D.M. (1997) Kinesin-related KIP3 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is required for a distinct step in nuclear migration. J. Cell Biol. 138, 1023-1040.
145. Saunders, W.S. and Hoyt, M.A. (1992) Kinesin-related proteins required for structural integrity of the mitotic spindle. Cell 70, 451-458.
146. Cottingham, F.R. and Hoyt, M.A. (1997) Mitotic spindle positioning in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is accomplished by antagonistically acting microtubule motor proteins. J. Cell Biol. 138, 1041-1053.
147. Watt, F.Z., Shiels, G. and Orr, E. (1987) The yeast Myo1 gene encoding a myosin-like protein required for cell division. EMBO J. 6, 3499-3505.
148. Lillie, S.H. and Brown, S.S. (1994) Immunofluorescence localization of the unconventional myosin, Myo2p, and the putative kinesin-related protein, Smy1p, to the same regions of polarized growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Cell Biol. 125, 825-842.
149. Küssel, P. and Frasch, M. (1995) Yeast Srp1, a nuclear protein related to Drosophila and mouse pendulin, is required for normal migration, division, and integrity of nuclei during mitosis. Mol. Gen. Genet. 248, 351-363.
150. Foreman, P.K. and Davis, R.W. (1996) CDP1, a novel Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene requried for proper nuclear division and chromosome segregation. Genetics 144, 1387-1397.
151. McMillan, J.N. and Tatchell, K. (1994) The JNM1 gene in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is required for nuclear migration and spindle orientation during the mitotic cell cycle. J. Cell Biol. 125, 143-158.
152. Brachat, A., Kilmartin, J.V., Wach, A. and Philippsen, P. (1998) Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells with defective spindle pole body outer plaques accomplish nuclear migration via half-bridge-organized microtubules. Mol. Biol. Chem. 9, 977-991.
153. Hoyt, M.A., Stearns, T. and Botstein, D. (1990) Chromosome instability mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that are defective in microtubule-mediated processes. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10, 223-234.
154. Ursic, D. and Culbertson, M.R. (1993) Is yeast TCP1 a chaperonin? Nature 356, 392.
155. Ursic, D. and Culbertson, M.R. (1991) The yeast homolog to mouse Tcp-1 affects microtubule-mediated processes. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11, 2629-2640.
156. Schroer, T.A. (1994) New insight into the interaction of cytoplasmic dynein with the actin-related protein, Arp1. J. Cell Biol. 127, 1-4.
157. Fisk, H.A. and Yaffe, M.P. (1997) Mutational analysis of Mdmlp function in nuclear and mitochondrial inheritance. J. Cell Biol. 138, 485-494.
158. Sogo, L.F. and Yaffe, M.P. (1994) Regulation of mitochondrial morpholog and inheritance by Mdm10p, a protein orf the mitochondrial outer membrane. J. Cell Biol. 126, 1361-1373.
159. Berger, K.H., Sogo, L.F. and Yaffe, M.P. (1997) Mdm12p, a component requried for mitochondrial inheritance that is conserved between budding and fission yeast. J. Cell Biol. 136, 545-553.
160. McConnell, S.J., Stewart, L.C., Talin, A. and Yaffe, M.P. (1990) Temperature-sensitive yeast mutants defective in mitochondrial inheritance. J. Cell Biol. 111, 967-976.
161. Shaw, S.L., Yeh, E., Maddox, P., Salmon, E.D. and Bloom, K. (1997) Astral microtubule dynamics in yeast: A microtubule-based searching mechanism for spindle orientation and nuclear migration into the bud. J. Cell Biol. 139, 985-994.
162. Carminati, J.L. and Stearns, T. (1997) Microbutules orient the mitotic spindle in yeast through dynein-dependent interactions with the cell cortex. J. Cell Biol. 138, 629-641.
163. Rose, M.D. (1996) Nuclear fusion in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 12, 663-695.
164. Read, E.B., Okamura, H.H. and Drubin, D.G. (1992) Actin-and tubulin-dependent functions during Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating projection formation. Mol. Biol. Chem. 3, 429-444.
165. Meluh, P.B. and Rose, M.D. (1990) KAR3, a kinesin-related gene required for yeast nuclear fusion. Cell 60, 1029-1041.
166. Endow, S.A., Kang, S.J., Satterwhite, L.L., Rose, M.D., Skeen, V.P. and Salmon, E.D. (1994) Yeast Kar3 is a minus-end microtubule motor protein that destabilizes microtubules preferentially at the minus ends. EMBO J. 13, 2708-2713.
167. Bascom-Slack, C.A. and Dawson, D.S. (1997) The yeast motor protein, Kar3p, is essential for meiosis I. J. Cell Biol. 139, 459-467.
168. Morris, N.R., Xiang, X. and Beckwith, S.M. (1995) Nuclear migration advances in fungi. Trends Cell. Biol. 5, 278-282.
169. McKerracher, L.J. and Heath, I.B. (1986) Fungal nuclear behaviour analysed by ultraviolet microbeam irradiation. Cell. Motil. Cytoskel. 6, 35-47.
170. Adams, T.H. (1994) Asexual sporulation in higher fungi. In: The Growing Fungus (Gow, N.A.R. and Gadd, G.M., Eds.), pp. 367-382. Chapman and Hall, London.
171. Deutsch, A., Dress, A. and Rensing, L. (1993) Formation of morphological differentiation patterns in the ascomycete Neurospora crassa. Mech. Dev. 44, 17-31.
172. Clutterbuck, A.J. and Timberlake, W.E. (1992). Genetic regulation of sporulation in the fungus Aspergillus nidulans. In: Development: The Molecular Genetic Approach (Russo, V.E.A., Brody, S., Cove, D. and Ottolenghi, S., Eds.), pp. 103-120. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
173. Timberlake, W.E. (1990) Molecular genetics of Aspergillus development. Annu. Rev. Genet. 24, 5-36.
174. Timberlake, W.E. (1993) Molecular controls of conidiogenesis in Aspergillus nidulans. In: Dimorphic Fungi in Biology and Medicine (vanden Bossche, H., Kerridge, D. and Odds, F., Eds.), pp. 13-22. Plenum Press, New York.
175. Mims, C.W., Richardson, E.A. and Timberlake, W.E. (1988) Ultrastructural analysis of conidiophore development in the fungus Aspergillus nidulans using freeze-substitution. Protoplasma 44, 132-141.
176. Prade, R. and Timberlake, W.E. (1993) The Aspergillus nidulans brlA regulatory locus consists of two overlapping transcription units that are individually required for conidiophore development. EMBO J. 12, 2439-2447.
177. Adams, T.H., Deising, H. and Timberlake, W.E. (1990) brlA requires both zinc fingers to induce development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10, 1815-1817.
178. Adams, T.H., Boylan, M.T. and Timberlake, W.E. (1988) brlA is necessary and sufficient to direct conidiophore development in Aspergillus nidulans. Cell 54, 353-362.
179. Andrianopoulos, A. and Timberlake, W.E. (1994) The Aspergillus nidulans abaA gene encodes a transcriptional activator that acts as a genetic switch to control development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 2503-2515.
180. Aramayo, R. and Timberlake, W.E. (1993) The Aspergillus nidulans yA gene is regulated by abaA. EMBO J. 12, 2039-2048.
181. Mayorga, M.E. and Timberlake, W.E. (1992) The developmentally regulated Aspergillus nidulans wA gene encodes a polypeptide homologous to polyketide and fatty acid synthases. Mol. Gen. Genet. 235, 205-212.
182. Mayorga, M.E. and Timberlake, W.E. (1990) Isolation and molecular characterization of the Aspergillus nidulans wA gene. Genetics 126, 73-79.
183. Miller, K.Y., Wu, J. and Miller, B.L. (1992) StuA is required for cell pattern formation in Aspergillus. Genes Dev. 6, 1770-1782.
184. Miller, K.Y., Toennis, T.M., Adams, T.H. and Miller, B.L. (1991) Isolation and transcriptional characterization of a morphological modifier: The Aspergillus nidulans stunted (stuA) gene. Mol. Gen. Genet. 227, 285-292.
185. Navarro, R.E., Stringer, M.A., Hansberg, W., Timberlake, W.E. and Aguirre, J. (1996) catA, a new Aspergillus nidulans gene encoding a developmentally regulated catalase. Curr. Genet. 29, 352-359.
186. Borgia, P.T., Iartchouk, N., Riggle, P.J., Winter, K.R., Koltin, Y. and Bulawa, C.E. (1996) The chsB gene of Aspergillus nidulans is necessary for normal hyphal growth and development. Fungal Genet. Biol. 20, 193-203.
187. Karos, M. and Fischer, R. (1996) hymA (hypha-like metulae), a new developmental mutant of Aspergillus nidulans. Microbiology 142, 3211-3218.
188. Karos, M. and Fischer, R. (1998) Aspergillus nidulans hymA encodes an evolutionarily highly conserved and a highly expressed protein. Mol. Gen. Genet, (in press).
189. Ye, X.S., Xu, G., Pu, R.T., Fincher, R.R., Osmani, A.H. and Osmani, S.A. (1995) Analysis of cell cycle regulation using Aspergillus nidulans. Can. J. Bot. 73, S359-S363.
190. Nakai, Y. and Ushiyama, R. (1978) Fine structure of shiitake, Lentinus edodes. VI Cytoplasmic microtubules in relation to nuclear movement. Can. J. Bot. 56, 1206-1211.
191. Wendland, J., Vaillancourt, L.J., Hegner, J., Lengeler, K.B., Laddison, K.J., Specht, C.A., Raper, C.A. and Kothe, E. (1995) The mating-type locus BaI of Schizophyllum commune conains a pheromone receptor gene and putative pheromone genes. EMBO J. 14, 5271-5278.
192. Schuurs, R.A., Dalstra, H.J.P., Scheer, J.M.J. and Wessels, J.G.H. (1998) Positioning of nuclei in the secondary mycelium of Schizophyllum commune in relation to differential gene expression. Fungal Genet. Biol. 23, 150-161.
193. Tanabe, S. and Kamada, T. (1994) The role of astral microtubules in conjugate division in the dikaryon of Coprinus cinereus. Exp. Mycol. 18, 338-348.
194. Iwasa, M., Tanabe, S. and Kamada, T. (1998) The two nuclei in the dikaryon of the homobasidiomycete Coprinus cinereus change position after each conjugate division. Fungal Genet. Biol. 23, 110-116.
195. Zickler, D., Arnaise, S., Coppin, E., Debuchy, R. and Picard, M. (1996) Altered mating-type identity in the fungus Podospora anserina leads to selfish nuclei, uniparental progeny, and haploid meiosis. Genetics 140, 493-503.
196. Berteaux-Lecellier, V., Zickler, D., Debuchy, R., PanvierAdoutte, A., Thompson-Coffe, C. and Picard, M. (1998) A homologue of the yeast SHE4 gene is essential for the transition between the syncytial and cellular stages during sexual reproduction of the fungus Podospora anserina. EMBO J. 17, 1248-1258.
197. Rose, M.D. (1991) Nuclear fusion in yeast. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 45, 539-557.
198. Banuett, F. (1992) Ustilago maydis, the delightful blight. Trends Genet. 8, 174-180.
199. Banuett, F. and Herskowitz, I. (1996) Discrete developmental stages
200. Bölker, M., Böhnert, H.U., Braun, K.H., Görl, J. and Kahmann, R. (1995) Tagging of pathogenicity genes in Ustilago maydis by restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI). Mol. Gen. Genet. 248, 547-552.
201. Talbot, N.J. (1995) Having a blast: exploring the pathogenicity of Magnaporthe grisea. Trends Microbiol. 3, 9-16.
202. Judelson, H.S. (1997) The genetics and biology of Phytophthora infestans: Modern approaches to a historical challenge. Fungal Genet. Biol. 22, 65-76.
203. Howard, R.J. and Valent, B. (1996) Breaking and entering: host penetration by the fungal rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 50, 491-512.
204. Howard, R.J., Ferrari M.A., Roach D.H. and Money N.P. (1991) Penetration of hard substrates by a fungus employing enormous turgor pressures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 11281-11284.
205. Zalokar, M. and Erk, I. (1976) Division and migration of nuclei during early embryogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Mic. Biol. Cell. 23, 97-106.
206. Wheatley, S., Kulkarni, S. and Karess, R. (1995) Drosophila nonmuscle myosin II is required for rapid cytoplasmic transport during oogenesis and for axial nuclear migration in early embryos. Development 121, 1937-1946.
207. Baker, J., Theurkauf, W.E. and Schubiger, G. (1993) Dynamic changes in microtubule configuration correlate with nuclear migration in the preblastoderm Drosophila embryo. J. Cell Biol. 122, 113-121.
208. Kraut, R., Chia, W., Jan, L.Y., Jan, Y.N. and Knoblich, J.A. (1996) Role of inscutable in orienting asymmetric cell divisions in Drosophila. Nature 383, 50-55.
209. Zwaal, R.R., Ahringer, J., van Luenen, H.G.A.M., Rushforth, A., Anderson, P. and Plasterk, R.H.A. (1996) G proteins are required for spatial orientation of early cell cleavages in C. elegans embryos. Cell 86, 619-629.
210. White, J. and Strome, S. (1996) Cleavage plane specification in C. elegans: How to divide the spoils. Cell 84, 195-198.
211. Reeve, W.J.D. and Kelly, P.P. (1983) Nuclear position in the cells of the mouse early embryo. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 75, 117-139.
212. Klominek, J., Sundqvist, K.-G. and Robert, K.-H. (1991) Nucleokinesis: Distinct pattern of cell translocation in response to an autocrine motility factor-like substance or fibronectin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 3902-3906.
213. Chenn, A. and McConnell, S.K. (1995) Cleavage orientation and the asymmetric inheritance of notch1 immunoreactivity in mammalian neurogenesis. Cell 82, 631-641.
214. Grolig, F. (1992) The cytoskeleton of the Zygnemataceae. In: The Cytoskeleton of the Algae (Menzel, D., Ed.), pp. 165-194. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
215. Grolig, F. (1998) Nuclear centering in Spirogyra: Force integration by microfilaments along microtubules. Planta 204, 54-63.
216. Cai, G., Moscatelli, A., Casino, C.D. and Cresti, M. (1996) Cytoplasmic motors and pollen tube growth. Sex Plant Reprod. 9, 59-64.
217. Meindl, U. (1986) Autonomous circular and radial motions of the nucleus in Pleur enterium tumidum and their relation to cytoskeletal elements and the plasma membrane. Protoplasma 135, 50-66.
218. Meindl, U., Zhan, D. and Hepler, P.K. (1994) Actin microfilaments are associated with the migrating nucleus and the cell cortex in the green alga Micrasterias. J. Cell Sci. 107, 1929-1934.
219. Neupert, W. (1997) Protein import into mitochondria. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 66, 863-917.
220. Hoffmann, H.-P. and Avers, C.J. (1973) Mitochondrion of yeast: Ultrastructural evidence for one giant, branched organelle per cell. Science 181, 749-751.
221. Coenen, A., Croft, J.H., Slakhorst, M., Debets, F. and Hoekstra, R. (1996) Mitochondrial inheritance in Aspergillus nidulans. Genet. Res. Comb. 67, 93-100.
222. Hermann, G.J., King, E.J. and Shaw, J.M. (1997) The yeast gene, MDM20, is necessary for mitochondrial inheritance and organization of the actin cytoskeleton. J. Cell Biol. 137, 141-153.
223. Allan, V. (1995) Protein phosphatase 1 regulates the cytoplasmic dynein-driven formation of endoplasmic reticulum networks in vitro. J. Cell Biol. 128, 879-891.
224. Corthésy-Theulaz, I., Pauloin, A. and Pfeffer, S.R. (1992) Cytoplasmic dynein participates in the centrosomal localization of the golgi complex. J. Cell Biol. 118, 1333-1345.
225. Shima, D.T., Cabrera-Poch, N., Pepperkok, R. and Warren, G. (1998) An ordered inheritance strategy for the Golgi-apparatus: Visualization of mitotic disassembly reveals a role for the mitotic spindle. J. Cell Biol. 141, 955-966.
226. Bryant, N.J. and Stevens, T.H. (1998) Vacuole biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Protein transport pathways to the yeast vacuole. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62, 230-247.
227. Morris, N.R., Lai, M.H. and Oakley, C.E. (1979) Identification of a gene for α-tubulin in Aspergillus nidulans. Cell 16, 437-442.
228. Sheir-Neiss, G., Lai, M. and Morris, N.R. (1978) Identification of a gene for β-tubulin in Aspergillus nidulans. Cell 15, 639-647.
229. Wilson, R. and et al. (1994) 2.2 Mb of contiguous nucleotide sequence from chromosome III of Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 368, 32-38.
230. Lehmler, C., Steinberg, G., Snetselaar, K.M., Schliwa, M., Kahmann, R. and Bölker, M. (1997) Identification of a motor protein required for filamentous growth in Ustilago maydis. EMBO J. 16, 3464-3473.
231. Jansen, R.P., Dowzer, C., Michaelis, C., Galova, M. and Nasmyth, K. (1996) Mother cell-specific HO expression in budding yeast depends on the unconventional myosin Myo4p and other cytoplasmic proteins. Cell 84, 687-697.