Dose calculations for external photon beams in radiotherapy

Physics in Medicine and Biology

Volumn 44, Issue 11, 1999, Pages

  Ahnesjö, Anders ^a   Aspradakis, Maria Mania ^b  

^a Box 1704   (Sweden)

^b NEWCASTLE GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACCURACY; BEAM THERAPY; DOSE CALCULATION; PHOTON; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE; REVIEW; STATISTICAL MODEL; SYSTEM ANALYSIS; TREATMENT PLANNING;

EID: 0032706348     PISSN: 00319155     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/44/11/201     Document Type: Review

References (323)

1. Ågren-Cronqvist A-K 1995 Quantification of the response of heterogeneous tumours and organized normal tissues to fractionated radiotherapy PhD Thesis University of Stockholm
2. Ahnesjö A 1984 Application of transform algorithms for calculation of absorbed dose in photon beams Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, VIII ICCR (Toronto, Canada) (Los Alamos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press) pp 17-20
3. _1987 Invariance of convolution kernels applied to dose calculations for photon beams Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, IX ICCR (Scheveningen, The Netherlands) ed I A D Bruinvis, P H van der Giessen, H J van Kleffens and F W Wittkämper (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 99-102
4. _1989 Collapsed cone convolution of radiant energy for photon dose calculation in heterogeneous media Med. Phys. 16 577-92
5. _1991 Dose calculation methods in photon beam therapy using energy deposition kernels PhD Thesis University of Stockholm
6. _1992 Dose calculation methods for multidimensional treatment planning Three-Dimensional Treatment Planning (Geneva) ed P Minet (Liège: European Association of Radiology) pp 277-88
7. _1994 Analytic modeling of photon scatter from flattening filters in photon therapy beams Med. Phys. 21 1227-35
8. _1995 Collimator scatter in photon therapy beams Med. Phys. 22 267-78
9. _1997 Cone discretization for the collapsed cone algorithm Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed D D Leavitt and G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 114-16
10. Ahnesjö A and Andreo P 1989 Determination of effective bremsstrahlung spectra and electron contamination for photon dose calculations Phys. Med. Biol. 34 1451-64
11. Ahnesjö A, Andreo P and Brahme A 1987 Calculation and application of point spread functions for treatment planning with high energy photon beams Acta Oncol. 26 49-56
12. Ahnesjö A, Knöös T and Montelius A 1992a Application of the convolution method for calculation of output factors for therapy photon beams Med. Phys. 19 295-301
13. Ahnesjö A and Mackie T R 1987 Analytical description of Monte Carlo generated photon dose convolution kernels Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, IX ICCR (Scheveningen, The Netherlands) ed I A D Bruinvis, P H van der Giessen, H J van Kleffens and F W Wittkämper (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 197-200
14. Ahnesjö A, Saxner M and Trepp A 1992b A pencil beam model for photon dose calculation Med. Phys. 19 263-73
15. Ahnesjö A and Trepp A 1991 Acquisition of the effective lateral energy fluence distribution for photon beam dose calculations by convolution models Phys. Med. Biol. 36 973-85
16. Ahnesjö A, Weber L and Nilsson P 1995 Modeling transmission and scatter for photon beam attenuators Med. Phys. 22 1711-20
17. Alcouffe R E, Baker R S, Brinkley F W, Marr D R, O'Dell R D and Walters W F 1995 DANTSYS: a diffusion accelerated neutral particle transport code system Report LA-12969-M UC-705 (Los Alamos National Laboratory)
18. Andreo P 1990 Uncertainties in dosimetric data and beam calibration Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 19 1233-47
19. _1991 Monte Carlo techniques in medical radiation physics Phys. Med. Biol. 36 861-920
20. Andreo P and Brahme A 1984 Restricted energy loss straggling and multiple scattering of electrons in mixed Monte Carlo procedures Radiat. Res. 100 16-29
21. Archer B R, Almond P R and Wagner L K 1985 Application of a Laplace transform pair model for high-energy x-ray spectral reconstruction Med. Phys. 12 630-3
22. Åsell M 1999 Development of optimized radiation therapy using external electron and photon beams PhD Thesis University of Stockholm
23. Aspradakis M M 1996 A study to assess and improve dose computations in photon beam therapy PhD Thesis University of Edinburgh
24. Aspradakis M M and Redpath A T 1997 A technique for the fast calculation of three-dimensional photon dose distributions using the superposition model. Phys. Med. Biol. 42 1475-89
25. Attix F A 1986 Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry (New York: Wiley)
26. Austin-Seymour M, Chen G T Y, Rosenman J, Michalski J, Lindsley K and Goitein M 1995 Tumor and target delineation: current research and future challenges Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 33 1041-52
27. Baker C R, Amaée B and Spyrou N M 1995 Reconstruction of megavoltage photon spectra by attenuation analysis Phys. Med. Biol. 40 529-42
28. Baker C R and Peck K K 1997 Reconstruction of 6 MV photon spectra from measured transmission including maximum energy estimation Phys. Med. Biol. 42 2041-51
29. Batho H F 1964 Lung corrections in cobalt 60 beam therapy J. Can. Assoc. Radiol. 15 79-83
30. Battista J J and Sharpe M B 1992 True three-dimensional dose computations for megavoltage x-ray therapy: a role for the superposition principle Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 15 159-78
31. Beaudoin L 1968 Analytical approach to the solution of the dosimetry in heterogeneous media MSc Thesis University of Toronto
32. Beauvais H, Bridier A and Dutreix A 1993 Characteristics of contamination electrons in high energy photon beams Radiother. Oncol. 29 308-16
33. Bell G I and Glasstone S 1970 Nuclear Reactor Theory (Malabar, FL: Krieger)
34. Bellman R and Wing G M 1975 An Introduction to Invariant Imbedding (New York: Wiley)
35. Berger M J 1963 Monte Carlo calculation of the penetration and diffusion of fast charged particles Methods in Computational Physics vol 1, ed B Alder, S Fernbach and M Rotenberg (New York: Academic) pp 135-215
36. Bielajew A F and Rogers D W O 1987 PRESTA: The parameter reduced electron-step transport algorithm for electron Monte Carlo transport Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 18 165-81
37. BJR 1983 Central axis depth dose data for use in radiotherapy Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 17)
38. _1996 Central axis depth dose data for use in radiotherapy Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 25)
39. Bjärngard B E 1987 On Fano's and O'Connor's theorems Radiat. Res. 109 184-9
40. Bjärngard B E and Cunningham J R 1986 Comments on 'Validity of the concept of separating primary and scatter dose' (letter) Med. Phys. 13 760-1
41. Bjärngard B E and Petti P L 1988 Description of the scatter component in photon-beam data Phys. Med. Biol. 33 21-32
42. Bjärngard B E and Shackford H 1994 Attenuation in high-energy x-ray beams Med. Phys. 21 1069-73
43. Bjärngard B E and Siddon R L 1982 A note on equivalent circles, squares, and rectangles Med. Phys. 9 258-60
44. Bjärngard B E, Tsai J S and Rice R K 1989 Attenuation in very narrow photon beams Radiat. Res. 118 195-200
45. _1990 Doses on the central axes of narrow 6-MV x-ray beams Med. Phys. 17 794-9
46. Bjärngard B E and Vadash P 1995 Analysis of central-axis doses for high-energy x-rays Med. Phys. 22 1191-5
47. Bjärngard B E, Vadash P and Ceberg C P 1997 Quality control of measured x-ray beam data Med. Phys. 24 1441-4
48. Bloch P and Altschuler M D 1995 Three-dimensional photon beam calculations Radiation Therapy Physics ed A Smith (Berlin: Springer)
49. Boellaard B E, van Herk M and Mijnheer B J 1997 A convolution model to convert transmission dose images to exit dose distributions Med. Phys. 24 189-99
50. Börgers C 1998 Complexity of Monte Carlo and deterministic dose-calculation methods Phys. Med. Biol. 43 517-28
51. Bortfeld T, Boyer A L, Schlegel W, Kahler D L and Waldron T J 1994 Realization and verification of three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy with modulated fields Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 30 899-908
52. Bortfeld T, Schlegel W and Rhein B 1993 Decomposition of pencil beam kernels for fast dose calculations in three-dimensional treatment planning Med. Phys. 20 311-18
53. Bortfeld T, Stein J and Preiser K 1997 Clinically relevant intensity modulation optimization using physical criteria Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed D D Leavitt and G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 1-4
54. Bourland J D and Chaney E L 1992 A finite-size pencil beam model for photon dose calculations in three dimensions Med. Phys. 19 1401-12
55. Boyer A L 1988 Relationship between attenuation coefficients and dose-spread kernels Radiat. Res. 113 235-42
56. Boyer A L and Mok E C 1984 Photon beam modeling using Fourier transform techniques Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, VIII ICCR (Toronto, Canada) (Los Alamos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press) pp 14-16
57. _1985 A photon dose distribution model employing convolution calculations Med. Phys. 12 169-77
58. _1986 Calculation of photon dose distributions in an inhomogeneous medium using convolutions Med. Phys. 13 503-9
59. Boyer A L and Schultheiss T 1988 Effects of dosimetric and clinical uncertainty on complication-free local tumor control Radiother. Oncol. 11 65-71
60. Boyer A L, Zhu Y, Wang L and Francois P 1989 Fast Fourier transform convolution calculations of x-ray isodose distributions in homogeneous media Med. Phys. 16 248-53
61. Brahme A 1977 Restricted mass energy absorption coefficients for use in dosimetry Internal Report SSI:1977-009 (National Institute of Radiation Protection)
62. _1984 Dosimetric precision requirements in radiation therapy Acta Radiol. Oncol. 23 379-91
63. _1987 Design principles and clinical possibilities with a new generation of radiation therapy equipment. A review Acta Oncol. 26 403-12
64. _(ed) 1988 Accuracy requirements and quality assurance of external beam therapy with photons and electrons Acta Radiol. Oncol. (suppl 1)
65. _1995 Treatment optimization using physical and radiobiological objective functions Radiation Therapy Physics ed A Smith (Berlin: Springer)
66. Brahme A, Lind B and Nafstadius P 1987 Radiotherapeutic computed tomography with scanned photon beams Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 13 95-101
67. Brahme A, Roos J E and Lax I 1982 Solution of an integral equation encountered in rotation therapy Phys. Med. Biol. 27 1221-9
68. Briesmeister J F 1988 MCNP - A general Monte Carlo N-particle transport code Report LA-12625-M (Los Alamos National Laboratory)
69. Cassell K J, Hobday P A and Parker R P 1981 The implementation of a generalised Batho inhomogeneity correction for radiotherapy planning with direct use of CT numbers Phys. Med. Biol. 26 825-33
70. Ceberg C P, Bjärngard B E and Zhu T C 1996 Experimental determination of the dose kernel in high-energy x-ray beams Med. Phys. 23 505-11
71. Chaney E L, Cullip T J and Gabriel T A 1994 A Monte Carlo study of accelerator head scatter Med. Phys. 21 1383-90
72. Chin L M, Kijewski P K, Svensson G K and Bjärngard B E 1983 Dose optimization with computer-controlled gantry rotation, collimator motion and dose-rate variation Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 9 723-9
73. Chui C and Mohan R 1984 Differential pencil beam dose computation model (abstract) Med. Phys. 11 392
74. Chui C S, LoSasso T and Spirou S 1994 Dose calculation for photon beams with intensity modulation generated by dynamic jaw or multileaf collimations Med. Phys. 21 1237-44
75. Clarkson J R 1941 A note on depth doses in fields of irregular shape Br. J. Radiol. 14 265-8
76. Convery D J and Rosenbloom M E 1992 The generation of intensity-modulated fields for conformal radiotherapy by dynamic collimation Phys. Med. Biol. 37 1359-74
77. Cormack A M 1987 A problem in rotation therapy with X-rays Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 13 623-30
78. Cormack A M and Cormack R A 1987 A problem in rotation therapy with X-rays: dose distributions with an axis of symmetry Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 13 1921-5
79. Cox L J, Schach von Wittenau A E, Bergstrom P M J, Mohan R, Libby B, Wu Q and Lovelock D M J 1997 Photon beam description in PEREGRINE for Monte Carlo dose calculations Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed D D Leavitt and G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 142-5
80. Cunningham J R 1972 Scatter-air ratios Phys. Med. Biol. 17 42-51
81. Cunningham J R 1983 Current and future developement of tissue inhomogeneity corrections for photon beam clinical dosimetry with the use of CT Computed Tomography in Radiation Therapy ed C C Ling, C C Rogers and R J Morton (New York: Raven Press) pp 209-18
82. Cunningham J R and Beaudoin L 1973 Calculations for tissue inhomogeneities with experimental verification XIII Int. Congress of Radiology (Madrid) XIII, pp 653-7
83. Cunningham J R, Shrivastava P N and Wilkinson J M 1972 Program IRREG-calculation of dose from irregularly shaped radiation beams Comput. Programs Biomed. 2 192-9
84. Dahlin H, Lamm I-L, Landberg T, Levernes S and Ulsø N 1983 User requirements on CT-based computed dose planning systems in radiation therapy Acta Radiol. Oncol. 22 398-414
85. Dasu A and Denekamp J 1999 Superfractionation as a potential hypoxic cell radiosensitizer: prediction of an optimum dose per fraction Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 43 1083-94
86. Day M J 1950 A note on the calculation of dose in x-ray fields Br. J. Radiol. 23 368-9
87. _1972 The equivalent field method for axial dose determinations in rectangular fields Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 10)
88. _1978 The equivalent field method for axial dose determinations in rectangular fields Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 11) 95-100
89. _1983 The normalised peak scatter factor and normalised scatter functions for high energy photon beams Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 17) 131-6
90. Day M J and Aird E G A 1996 The equivalent field method for dose determination in rectangular fields Br. J. Radiol. (suppl 25) 138-51
91. Dean R D 1980 A scattering kernel for use in true three-dimensional dose calculations (abstract) Med. Phys. 7 429
92. DeMarco J J, Solberg T D and Smathers J B 1998 A CT-based Monte Carlo simulation tool for dosimetry planning and analysis Med. Phys. 25 1-11
93. Desobry G E and Boyer A L 1991 Bremsstrahlung review: an analysis of the Schiff spectrum Med. Phys. 18 497-505
94. _1994 An analytic calculation of the energy fluence spectrum of a linear accelerator Med. Phys. 21 1943-52
95. Desobry G E, Wells N H and Boyer A L 1991 Rotational kernels for conformal therapy Med. Phys. 18 481-7
96. Difilippo F C 1998 Forward and adjoint methods for radiotherapy planning Med. Phys. 25 1702-10
97. Dische S, Saunders M I, Williams C, Hopkins A and Aird E 1993 Precision in reporting the dose given in a course of radiotherapy Radiother. Oncol. 29 287-93
98. Dunscombe P B and Nieminen J M 1992 On the field-size dependence of relative output from a linear accelerator Med. Phys. 19 1441-4
99. Dutreix A, Bjärngard B E, Bridier A, Mijnheer B, Shaw J E and Svensson H 1997 Monitor unit calculation for high energy photon beams Physics for Clinical Radiotherapy, Booklet No. 3 (Leuven/Apeldoom: Garant)
100. Dutreix J, Dutreix A and Tubiana M 1965 Electronic equilibrium and transition stages Phys. Med. Biol. 10 177-90
101. Ebert M A, Hoban P W and Keall P J 1996 Modelling clinical accelerator beams: a review Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 19 131-50
102. Eklöf A, Ahnesjö A and Brahme A 1990 Photon beam energy deposition kernels for inverse radiotherapy planning Acta Oncol. 29 447-54
103. El-Khatib E and Battista J J 1984 Improved lung dose calculation using tissue-maximum ratios in the Batho correction Med. Phys. 11 279-86
104. Faddegon B A, Ross C K and Rogers D W O 1990 Forward-directed bremsstrahlung of 10-to 30-MeV electrons incident on thick targets of Al and Pb Med. Phys. 17 773-85
105. _1991 Angular distribution of bremsstrahlung from 15-MeV electrons incident on thick targets of Be, Al, and Pb Med. Phys. 18 727-39
106. Fano U 1954 Note on the Bragg-Gray cavity principle for measuring energy dissipation Radiat. Res. 1 237-40
107. Fraass B, Doppke K, Hunt M, Kutcher G, Starkschall G, Stern R and Van Dyke J 1998 American Association of Physicists in Medicine Radiation Therapy Committee Task Group 53: quality assurance for clinical radiotherapy treatment planning Med. Phys. 25 1773-829
108. Fraass B A 1995 The development of conformal radiation therapy Med. Phys. 22 1911-21
109. Francois P, Coste F, Bonnet J and Caselles O 1997 Validation of reconstructed bremsstrahlung spectra between 6 MV and 25 MV from measured transmission data Med. Phys. 24 769-73
110. Goitein M and Abrams M 1983 Multi-dimensional treatment planning: I. Delineation of anatomy Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 9 777-87
111. Goitein M, Abrams M, Rowell D, Pollari H and Wiles J 1983 Multi-dimensional treatment planning: II. Beam's eye-view, back projection, and projection through CT sections Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 9 789-97
112. Gokhale P, Hussein E M A and Kulkarni N 1994 Determination of beam orientation in radiotherapy planning Med. Phys. 21 393-400
113. Greene D and Stewart J R 1965 Isodose curves in non-uniform phantoms Br. J. Radiol. 38 378-85
114. Gupta S K and Cunningham J R 1966 Measurement of tissue-air ratios and scatter functions for large field sizes, for cobalt 60 gamma radiation Br. J. Radiol. 39 7-11
115. Gustafsson A 1996 Development of a versatile algorithm for optimization of radiation therapy PhD Thesis University of Stockholm
116. Gustafsson A, Lind B K and Brahme A 1994 A generalized pencil beam algorithm for optimization of radiation therapy Med. Phys. 21 343-56
117. Gustafsson A, Lind B K, Svensson R and Brahme A 1995 Simultaneous optimization of dynamic multileaf collimation and scanning patterns or compensation filters using a generalized pencil beam algorithm Med. Phys. 22 1141-56
118. Hannallah D, Zhu T C and Bjärngard B E 1996 Electron disequilibrium in high-energy x-ray beams Med. Phys. 23 1867-71
119. Hansen V N, Evans P M and Swindell W 1996 The application of transit dosimetry to precision radiotherapy Med. Phys. 23 713-21
120. Harder D 1974 Fano's theorem and the multiple scattering correction. Fourth Symp. on Microdosimetry (Verbania-Pallanza, Italy) ed J Booz, H G Ebert, R Eickel and A Waker (Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities) pp 677-93
121. Harms W B, Low D A, Wong J W and Purdy J A 1998 A software tool for the quantitative evaluation of 3D dose calculation algorithms Med. Phys. 25 1830-36
122. Hartmann Siantar C L, Bergstrom P M, Chandler W P, Chase L, Cox L J, Daly T P, Garrett D, Hornstein S M, House R K, Moses E I, Patterson R W, Rathkopf J A and Schach von Wittenau A E 1997 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's PEREGRINE project Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed D D Leavitt and G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 19-22
123. Heukelom S, Lanson J H and Mijnheer B J 1994 Wedge factor constituents of high energy photon beams: field size and depth dependence Radiother. Oncol. 30 66-73
124. _1997 Differences in wedge factor determination in air using a PMMA mini-phantom or a brass buildup cap Med. Phys. 24 1986-91
125. Hoban P W 1995 Accounting for the variation in collision kerma-to-terma ratio in polyenergetic photon beam convolution Med. Phys. 22 2035-44
126. Hoban P W, Murray D C and Round W H 1994 Photon beam convolution using polyenergetic energy deposition kernels Phys. Med. Biol. 39 669-85
127. Holmes T, Mackie T R, Simpkin D and Reckwerdt P 1991 A unified approach to the optimization of brachytherapy and external beam dosimetry Int. J. Radiat. Oncil. Biol. Phys. 20 859-73
128. Holt J G, Laughlin J S and Moroney J P 1970 The extension of the concept of tissue-air ratios (TAR) to high-energy x-ray beams Radiology 96 437-46
129. Hounsell A R 1998 Monitor chamber backscatter for intensity modulated radiation therapy using multileaf collimators Phys. Med. Biol. 43 445-54
130. Huang P H, Kase K R and Bjärngard B E 1983 Reconstruction of 4-MV bremsstrahlung spectra from measured transmission data Med. Phys. 10 778-85
131. Huizenga H and Storchi P R M 1989 Numerical calculation of energy deposition by broad high-energy electron beams Phys. Med. Biol. 34 1371-96
132. Hurkmans C, Knöös T, Nilsson P, Svahn-Tapper G and Danielsson H 1995 Limitations of a pencil beam approach to photon dose calculations in the head and neck region Radiother. Oncol. 37 74-80
133. IAEA 1987 Absorbed dose determination in photon and electron beams. An international code of practice IAEA Technical Report Series No. 277 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency)
134. ICCR 1970 Computers in radiotherapy Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, III ICCR (Glasgow, Scotland) ed A S Glicksman, M Cohen and J R Cunningham (British Journal of Radiology)
135. ICRU 1963 Clinical dosimetry handbook 87 ICRU Publication 10d (Washington, DC: National Bureau of Standards)
136. _1973 Measurement of absorbed dose in a phantom irradiated by a single beam of x or gamma rays ICRU Publication 23 (Bethesda, MA: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements)
137. _1976 Determination of absorbed dose in a patient irradiated by beams of x or gamma rays in radiotherapy procedures ICRU Publication 24 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements)
138. _1987 Use of computers in external beam radiotherapy procedures with high-energy photons and electrons ICRU Publication 42 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements)
139. _1998 Fundamental quantities and units for ionizing radiation ICRU Publication 60 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements)
140. Islam M K and Van Dyk J 1995 Effects of scatter generated by beam-modifying absorbers in megavoltage photon beams Med. Phys. 22 2075-81
141. Iwasaki A 1985 A method of calculating high-energy photon primary absorbed dose in water using forward and backward spread dose-distribution functions Med. Phys. 12 731-7
142. _1990 Calculation of three-dimensional photon primary absorbed dose using forward and backward spread dose-distribution functions Med. Phys. 17 195-202
143. Iwasaki A and Ishito T 1984 The differential scatter-air ratio and differential backscatter factor method combined with the density scaling theorem Med. Phys. 11 755-63
144. Jaffray D A, Battista J J, Fenster A and Munro P 1993 X-ray sources of medical linear accelerators: focal and extra-focal radiation Med. Phys. 20 1417-27
145. Janssen J J, Korevaar E W, Storchi P R M and Huizenga H 1997 Numerical calculation of energy deposition by high-energy electron beams: III-B. Improvements to the 6D phase space evolution model Phys. Med. Biol. 42 1441-9
146. Johns H E, Darby E K, Haslam R N, Katz L and Harrington E L 1949 Depth dose data and isodose distributions for radiation from a 22 MeV betatron Am. J. Roentgenol. 62 257-68
147. Johns H E, Whitmore G F, Watson T A and Umberg F H 1953 A system of dosimetry for rotation therapy and typical rotation distribution J. Can. Assoc. Radiol. 4 1-14
148. Jung B, Montelius A, Dahlin H, Ekström P, Ahnesjö A, Högström B and Glimelius B 1997 The conceptual design of a radiation oncology planning system Comput. Methods Prog. Biom. 52 79-92
149. Jursinic P A and Mackie T R 1996 Characteristics of secondary electrons produced by 6, 10 and 24 MV x-ray beams Phys. Med. Biol. 41 1499-509
150. Karlsson M, Nyström H and Svensson H 1993 Photon beam characteristics on the MM50 racetrack microtron and a new approach for beam quality determination Med. Phys. 20 143-9
151. Karzmark C J, Deubert A and Loevinger R 1965 Letter to Editor: tissue-phantom ratios - an aid to treatment planning Br. J. Radiol. 38 158-9
152. Kase K R and Svensson G K 1986 Head scatter data for several linear accelerators (4-18 MV) Med. Phys. 13 530-2
153. Kawrakow I and Bielajew A F 1998 On the condensed history technique for electron transport Nucl. Inslrum. Methods B 142 253-80
154. Kawrakow I, Fippel M and Friedrich K 1996 3D electron dose calculation using a voxel based Monte Carlo algorithm (VMC) Med. Phys. 23 445-57
155. Keall P and Hoban P 1995 Accounting for primary electron scatter in x-ray beam convolution calculations Med. Phys. 22 1413-18
156. _1996a Superposition dose calculation incorporating Monte Carlo generated electron track kernels Med. Phys. 23 479-85
157. _1996b A review of electron beam dose calculation algorithms Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 19 111-30
158. Keller H, Fix M and Rüegsegger P 1998 Calibration of a portal imaging device for high-precision dosimetry: a Monte Carlo study. Med. Phys. 25 1891-902
159. Khan F M, Moore V C and Sato S 1972 Depth dose and scatter analysis of 10 MV X rays Radiology 102 165-9
160. 60Co beam Med. Phys. 13 74-7
161. Kijewski P K, Chin L M and Bjärngard B E 1978 Wedge-shaped dose distributions by computer-controlled collimator motion Med. Phys. 5 426-9
162. Kim S, Palta J R and Zhu T C 1998 A generalized solution for the calculation of in-air output factors in irregular fields Med. Phys. 25 1692-701
163. King L V 1912 Absorption problems in radioactivity Phil. Mag. xxiii 242-50
164. Knöös T, Ahnesjö A, Nilsson P and Weber L 1995 Limitations of a pencil beam approach to photon dose calculations in lung tissue Phys. Med. Biol. 40 1411-20
165. Koch H W and Motz J W 1959 Bremsstrahlung cross-section formulas and related data Rev. Mod. Phys. 31 920-55
166. Kubo H 1989 Telescopic measurements of backscattered radiation from secondary collimator jaws to a beam monitor chamber using a pair of slits Med. Phys. 16 295-8
167. Küster G, Bortfeld T and Schlegel W 1997 Monte Carlo simulations of radiation beams from radiotherapy units and beam limiting devices using the program GEANT Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 150-2
168. Källman P, Ågren A and Brahme A 1992b Tumour and normal tissue responses to fractionated non-uniform dose delivery. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 62 249-62
169. Källman P, Lind B K and Brahme A 1992a An algorithm for maximizing the probability of complication-free tumour control in radiation therapy Phys. Med. Biol. 37 871-90
170. Lam K L, Muthuswamy M S and Ten Haken R K 1998 Measurement of backscatter to the monitor chamber of medical accelerators using target charge Med. Phys. 25 334-8
171. Larson K B and Prasad S C 1978 Absorbed dose computations for inhomogeneous media in radiation-treatment planning using differential scatter-air ratios 2nd Ann. Symp. on Computer Applications in Medical Care (Washington DC) (New York: IEEE) pp 93-9
172. Lax I and Brahme A 1982 Rotation therapy using a novel high-gradient filter Radiology 145 73-8
173. Lee P C 1997 Monte Carlo simulations of the differential beam hardening effect of a flattening filter on a therapeutic x-ray beam Med. Phys. 24 1485-9
174. Lewis D G, Swindell W, Morton E J, Evans P M and Xiao Z R 1992 A megavoltage CT scanner for radiotherapy verification Phys. Med. Biol. 37 1985-99
175. Liu H H, Mackie T R and McCullough E C 1997a Calculating dose and output factors for wedged photon radiotherapy fields using a convolution/superposition method Med. Phys. 24 1714-28
176. _1997b Calculating output factors for photon beam radiotherapy using a convolution/superposition method based on a dual source photon beam model Med. Phys. 24 1975-85
177. _1997c Correcting kernel tilting and hardening in convolution/superposition dose calculations for clinical divergent and polychromatic photon beams Med. Phys. 24 1729-41
178. _1997d A dual source photon beam model used in convolution/superposition dose calculations for clinical megavoltage x-ray beams Med. Phys. 24 1960-74
179. Liu H H, McCullough E C and Mackie T R 1998 Calculating dose distributions and wedge factors for photon treatment fields with dynamic wedges based on a convolution/superposition method Med. Phys. 25 56-63
180. Loevinger R 1950 Distribution of absorbed energy around a point source of beta radiation Science 112 530-1
181. _1956 The dosimetry of beta sources in tissue: the point source function Radiology 66 55-62
182. Löf J, Lind B K and Brahme A 1998 An adaptive control algorithm for optimization of intensity modulated radiotherapy considering uncertainties in beam profiles, patient set-up and internal organ motion. Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1605-28
183. Löfgren A 1998 Polygon delineation of thick collimator apertures from arbitrary view points MSc Thesis University of Uppsala
184. Lovelock D M, Chui C S and Mohan R 1995 A Monte Carlo model of photon beams used in radiation therapy Med. Phys. 22 1387-94
185. Luxton G and Astrahan M A 1988 Output factor constituents of a high-energy photon beam Med. Phys. 15 88-91
186. Lydon J M 1998 Photon dose calculations in homogeneous media for a treatment planning system using a collapsed cone superposition convolution algorithm Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1813-22
187. Mackie T R 1984 A study of charged particles and scattered photons in mega-voltage x-ray beams PhD Thesis University of Alberta
188. _1990 Applications of the Monte Carlo method in radiotherapy The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation vol 3, ed K R Kase, B Bjärngard and F H Attix (New York: Academic) pp 541-620
189. Mackie T R, Bielajew A F, Rogers D W O and Battista J J 1988 Generation of photon energy deposition kernels using the EGS Monte Carlo code Phys. Med. Biol. 33 1-20
190. Mackie T R, Holmes T, Swerdloff S, Reckwerdt P, Deasy J O, Yang J, Paliwal B and Kinsella T 1993 Tomotherapy: a new concept for the delivery of dynamic conformal radiotherapy Med. Phys. 20 1709-19
191. Mackie T R, Reckwerdt P, McNutt T, Gehring M and Sanders C 1996 Photon beam dose computations Teletherapy: Present and Future ed J Palta and T R Mackie (College Park, MD: American Association of Physicists in Medicine) pp 103-35
192. Mackie T R, Reckwerdt P and Papanikolaou N 1995 3-D photon beam dose algorithms 3-D Radiation Treatment Planning and Conformal Therapy ed J A Purdy and B Emami (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing)
193. Mackie T R and Scrimger J W 1984 Computing radiation dose for high energy X-rays using a convolution method Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, VIII ICCR (Toronto, Canada) (Los Alamos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press) pp 36-40
194. Mackie T R, Scrimger J W and Battista J J 1985 A convolution method of calculating dose for 15-MV x rays Med. Phys. 12 188-96
195. Manfredotti C, Nastasi U, Marchisio R, Ongaro C, Gervino G, Ragona R, Anglesio S and Sannazzari G 1990 Monte Carlo simulation of dose distribution in electron beam radiotherapy treatment planning Nucl. Instrum. Methods A 291 646-54
196. Mayneord W V 1945 Energy absorption. IV The mathematical theory of integral dose in radium therapy Br. J. Radiol. 18 12-19
197. McGary J E and Boyer A L 1997 An interactive, parallel, three-dimensional fast Fourier transform convolution dose calculation using a supercomputer Med. Phys. 24 519-22
198. McKenna M G, Chen X G, Altschuler M D and Bloch P 1995 Calculation of the dose in the buildup region for high energy photon beam. Treatment planning when beam spoilers are employed Radiother. Oncol. 34 63-8
199. McLellan J, Papiez L, Sandison G A, Huda W and Therrien P 1992 A numerical method for electron transport calculations Phys. Med. Biol. 37 1109-25
200. McNutt T R, Mackie T R, Reckwerdt P and Paliwal B R 1996a Modeling dose distributions from portal dose images using the convolution/superposition method Med. Phys. 23 1381-92
201. McNutt T R, Mackie T R, Reckwerdt P, Papanikolaou N and Paliwal B R 1996b Calculation of portal dose using the convolution/superposition method Med. Phys. 23 527-35
202. Metcalfe P E, Hoban P W, Murray D C and Round W H 1989 Modelling polychromatic high energy photon beams by superposition Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 12 138-48
203. Metcalfe P E, Hoban P W, Murray D C and Round W H 1990 Beam hardening of 10 MV radiotherapy x-rays: analysis using a convolution/superposition method Phys. Med. Biol. 35 1533-49
204. Mijnheer B J, Battermann J J and Wambersie A 1987 What degree of accuracy is required and can be achieved in photon and neutron therapy? Radiother. Oncol. 8 237-52
205. Mohan R and Chui C S 1985 Validity of the concept of separating primary and scatter dose Med. Phys. 12 726-30
206. _1987 Use of fast Fourier transforms in calculating dose distributions for irregularly shaped fields for three-dimensional treatment planning Med. Phys. 14 70-7
207. Mohan R, Chui C and Lidofsky L 1985 Energy and angular distributions of photons from medical linear accelerators Med. Phys. 12 592-7
208. _1986 Differential pencil beam dose computation model for photons Med. Phys. 13 64-73
209. Mohan R, Chui C, Miller D and Laughlin J S 1981 Use of computerized tomography in dose calculations for radiation treatment planning J. Comput. Tomogr. 5 273-82
210. Mohan R, Wu Q, Wang X and Stein J 1996 Intensity modulation optimization, lateral transport of radiation, and margins Med. Phys. 23 2011-21
211. Murray D C, Hoban P W, Metcalfe P E and Round W H 1989 3-D superposition
212. Murray D C, Hoban P W, Round W H, Graham I D and Metcalfe P E 1991 Superposition on a multicomputer system Med. Phys. 18 468-73
213. Nelson W R, Hirayama H and Rogers D W O 1985 The EGS4 code system Stanford Linear Accelerator Report 265
214. NEMA 1998 Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine (DICOM) PS 3.1-3.14 (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
215. Neuenschwander H, Mackie T R and Reckwerdt P J 1995 MMC - a high-performance Monte Carlo code for electron beam treatment planning Phys. Med. Biol. 40 543-74
216. Niemierko A and Goitein M 1990 Random sampling for evaluating treatment plans Med. Phys. 17 753-62
217. Nigg D W, Randolph P D and Wheeler F J 1991 Demonstration of three-dimensional deterministic radiation transport theory dose distribution analysis for boron neutron capture therapy Med. Phys. 18 43-53
218. Nilsson B 1985 Electron contamination from different materials in high energy photon beams Phys. Med. Biol. 30 139-51
219. Nilsson B and Brahme A 1979 Absorbed dose from secondary electrons in high energy photon beams Phys. Med. Biol. 24 901-12
220. _1981 Contamination of high-energy photon beams by scattered photons Strahlentherapie 157 181-6
221. _1986 Electron contamination from photon beam collimators Radiother. Oncol. 5 235-44
222. Nilsson M and Knöös T 1992 Application of the Fano theorem in inhomogeneous media using a convolution algorithm Phys. Med. Biol. 37 69-83
223. Nisbet A, Weatherburn H, Fenwick J D and McVey G 1998 Spectral reconstruction of clinical megavoltage photon beams and the implications of spectral determination on the dosimetry of such beams Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1507-21
224. Nizin P S 1993 Electronic equilibrium and primary dose in collimated photon beams Med. Phys. 20 1721-9
225. Nordell B and Brahme A 1984 Angular distribution and yield from bremsstrahlung targets Phys. Med. Biol. 29 797-810
226. O'Connor J E 1957 The variation of scattered x-rays with density in an irradiated body Phys. Med. Biol. 1 352-69
227. O'Connor J E and Malone D E 1989 A cobalt-60 primary dose spread array derived from measurements Phys. Med. Biol. 34 1029-42
228. Ostapiak O Z, Zhu Y and Van Dyk J 1997 Refinements of the finite-size pencil beam model of three-dimensional photon dose calculation Med. Phys. 24 743-50
229. Overgaard J and Bartelink H 1995 About tolerance and quality. An important notice to all radiation oncologists Radiother. Oncol. 35 1-3
230. Papanikolaou N, Mackie T R, Meger-Wells C, Gehring M and Reckwerdt P 1993 Investigation of the convolution method for polyenergetic spectra Med. Phys. 20 1327-36
231. Patomaki L K 1968 The equivalent field principle and its use in beam therapy dose calculations Br. J. Radiol. 41 381-3
232. Petti P L, Rice R K, Mijnheer B J, Chin L M and Bjärngard B E 1987 A heterogeneity model for photon beams incorporating electron transport Med. Phys. 14 349-54
233. Piermattei A, Arcovito G, Azario L, Bacci C, Bianciardi L, De Sapio E and Giacco C 1990 A study of quality of bremsstrahlung spectra reconstructed from transmission measurements Med. Phys. 17 227-33
234. Purdy J A 1992 Photon dose calculations for three-dimensional radiation treatment planning Semin. Radiat. Oncol. 2 235-45
235. Purdy J A and Prasad S C 1983 Current methods and algorithms in radiation absorbed dose calculation and the role of computed tomography: a review Computed Tomography in Radiation Therapy ed C C Ling, C C Rogers and R J Morton (New York: Raven Press) pp 187-97
236. Purdy J A, Wong J W, Harms W B, Emami B and Matthews J W 1987 State of the art of high energy photon treatment planning Front. Radiat. Therapy Oncol. 21 4-24
237. Rathee S, McClean B A and Field C 1993 An improved method for rebinning kernels from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates. Med. Phys. 20 1343-51
238. Reckwerdt P J and Mackie T R 1992 Superposition/convolution speed improvements using run-length raytracing (AAPM abstract) Med. Phys. 19 784
239. Redpath A T 1995 A beam model for 3-dimensional radiotherapy planning Br. J. Radiol. 68 1356-63
240. Redpath A T and Thwaites D I 1991 A 3-dimensional scatter correction algorithm for photon beams Phys. Med. Biol. 36 779-98
241. Roesch W M C 1958 Dose for nonelectronic equilibrium conditions Radiat. Res. 9 399-410
242. Rogers D W O and Bielajew A F 1990 Monte Carlo techniques of electron and photon transport for radiation The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation vol 3, ed K R Kase, B Bjärngard and F H Attix (New York: Academic) pp 427-539
243. Rogers D W O, Faddegon B A, Ding G X, Ma C M, We J and Mackie T R 1995 BEAM: a Monte Carlo code to simulate radiotherapy treatment units Med. Phys. 22 503-24
244. Rossi H H and Roesch W C 1962 Field equations in dosimetry Radiat. Res. 16 783-95
245. Sätherberg A, Karlsson M and Karlsson M 1996 Theoretical and experimental determination of phantom scatter factors for photon fields with different radial energy variation Phys. Med. Biol. 41 2687-94
246. Sauer O A 1994 Dosisverteilungen an Material-Grenzflächen bei energiereichen Röntgenstrahlen PhD Thesis University of Julius-Maximilians Würzburg
247. _1995 Calculation of dose distributions in the vicinity of high-Z interfaces for photon beams Med. Phys. 22 1685-90
248. Sauer O and Neumann M 1990 Reconstruction of high-energy bremsstrahlung spectra by numerical analysis of depth-dose data Radiother. Oncol. 18 39-47
249. Saxner M and Ahnesjo A 1998 Implementation of the collapsed cone method for clinical beam qualities Med. Phys. 25 A 185
250. Saxner M, Löfgren A and Ahnesjö A 1997 Integration of head scatter fluence calculations in treatment planning Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, XII ICCR (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) ed D D Leavitt and G Starkschall (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp 213-15
251. Schad L R, Gademann G, Knopp M, Zabel H J, Schlegel W and Lorenz W J 1992 Radiotherapy treatment planning of basal meningiomas: improved tumor localization by correlation of CT and MR imaging data Radiother. Oncol. 25 56-62
252. Schoknecht G 1971 Die Beschreibung von Strahlenfeldern durch Separierung von Primär-und Streustrahlung IV. Berechnung von Streuverteilungen für parallele Photonenstrahlenfelder Strahlentherapie 141 326-31
253. Shapiro A, Lin B I, Windham J P and Kereiakes J G 1976 Transport calculations of gamma ray flux density and dose rate about implantable californium-252 sources Phys. Med. Biol. 21 509-23
254. Sharpe M B and Battista J J 1993 Dose calculations using convolution and superposition principles: the orientation of dose spread kernels in divergent x-ray beams Med. Phys. 20 1685-94
255. Sharpe M B, Jaffray D A, Battista J J and Munro P 1995 Extrafocal radiation: a unified approach to the prediction of beam penumbra and output factors for megavoltage x-ray beams Med. Phys. 22 2065-74
256. Siddon R L 1985 Fast calculation of the exact radiological path for a three-dimensional CT array Med. Phys. 12 252-5
257. Siddon R L, Dewyngaert J K and Bjärngard B E 1985 Scatter integration with right triangular fields Med. Phys. 12 229-31
258. Silver M D 1994 Target self-attenuation extension to the Desobry and Boyer thick-target bremsstrahlung spectrum Med. Phys. 21 577-9
259. Sjögren R and Karlsson M 1996 Electron contamination in clinical high energy photon beams Med. Phys. 23 1873-81
260. Söderström S, Gustafsson A and Brahme A 1993 The clinical value of different treatment objectives and degrees of freedom in radiation therapy optimization Radiother. Oncol. 29 148-63
261. Sontag M R 1979 Photon beam dose calculations in regions of tissue heterogeneity using computed tomography PhD Thesis University of Toronto
262. Sontag M R and Cunningham J R 1977 Corrections to absorbed dose calculations for tissue inhomogeneities Med. Phys. 4 431-6
263. _1978a Clinical application of a CT based treatment planning system Comput. Tomogr. 2 117-30
264. _1978b The equivalent tissue-air ratio method for making absorbed dose calculations in a heterogeneous medium Radiology 129 787-94
265. Sontag M R and Ray S K 1995 Determination of differential scatter-air ratios (dSAR) for three-dimensional scatter integration Med. Phys. 22 775-80
266. Sterling T D, Perry H and Katz L 1964 Automation of radiation treatment planning IV. Derivation of a mathematical expression for the per cent depth dose surface of cobalt 60 beams and visualisation of multiple field dose distributions Br. J. Radiol. 37 544-50
267. Storchi P and van Gasteren J J M 1996 A table of phantom scatter factors of photon beams as a function of the quality index and field size Phys. Med. Biol. 41 563-71
268. Storchi P and Woudstra E 1996 Calculation of the absorbed dose distribution due to irregularly shaped photon beams using pencil beam kernels derived form basic beam data Phys. Med. Biol. 41 637-56
269. Storchi P, Woudstra E, Verlinde P, Johansson K-A and Samuelsson A 1998 Calculation of absorbed dose distributions from dynamic wedges Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1497-506
270. 60Co in fixed-beam teletherapy Acta Radiol. 3 342-52
271. Svensson H and Brahme A 1986 Recent advances in electron and photon dosimetry Radiation Dosimetry, Physical and Biological Aspects ed C G Orton (New York: Plenum) pp 87-170
272. Svensson R and Brahme A 1996 Effective source size, yield and beam profile from multi-layered bremsstrahlung targets Phys. Med. Biol. 41 1353-79
273. Svensson R, Källman P and Brahme A 1994 An analytical solution for the dynamic control of multileaf collimators Phys. Med. Biol. 39 37-61
274. Swindell W, Simpson R G, Oleson J R, Chen C-T and Grubbs F A 1983 Computed tomography with a linear accelerator with radiotherapy applications Med. Phys. 10 416-20
275. Tailor R C, Tello V M, Schroy C B, Vossler M and Hanson W F 1998 A generic off-axis energy correction for linac photon beam dosimetry Med. Phys. 25 662-7
276. Tatcher M and Bjärngard B E 1993 Equivalent squares of irregular photon fields Med. Phys. 20 1229-32
277. Thomas S J 1991 A modified power-law formula for inhomogeneity corrections in beams of high-energy x-rays Med. Phys. 18 719-23
278. Treuer H, Boesecke R, Hartmann G H, Schlegel W and Lorenz W J 1987 Dosimetrische Bestimmung der Primärfluenz und der Fokusgrösse eines 15-MeV-Linearbeschleunigers. Med. Physik 375-80
279. Ulmer W 1982 On the application of stochastic partition functions for the computation of lateral profiles and depth doses in radiotherapy Strahlentherapie 158 305-11
280. Uwamino Y, Nakamura T, Ohkubo T and Hara A 1986 Measurement and calculation of neutron leakage from a medical electron accelerator Med. Phys. 13 374-84
281. van de Geijn J 1987 The extended net fractional depth dose: correction for inhomogeneities, including effects of electron transport in photon beam dose calculation Med. Phys. 14 84-92
282. Van Dyk J, Barnett R B, Cygler J E and Shragge P C 1993 Commissioning and quality assurance of treatment planning computers Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 26 261-73
283. van Gasteren J J M, Heukelom S, van Kleffens H J, van der Laarse R, Venselaar J L M and Westermann C F 1991 The determination of phantom and collimator scatter components of the output of megavoltage photon beams: measurement of the collimator scatter part with a beam-coaxial narrow cylindrical phantom. Radiother. Oncol. 20 250-7
284. van Santvoort J P C and Heijmen B J M 1996 Dynamic multileaf collimation without 'tongue-and-groove' underdosage effects Phys. Med. Biol. 41 2091-105
285. van't Veld A A 1997 Analysis of accuracy in dose and position in calculations of a treatment planning system for blocked photon fields Radiother. Oncol. 45 245-51
286. van't Veld A A and Bruinvis I A 1995 Influence of shape on the accuracy of grid-based volume computations Med. Phys. 22 1377-85
287. Wagner J C, Redmond II E L, Palmtag S P and Hendricks J S 1994 MCNP: multigroup/adjoint capabilities Report LA-12704 (Los Alamos National Laboratory)
288. Wang L, Chui C-S and Lovelock M 1998 A patient-specific Monte Carlo dose-calculation method for photons beams Med. Phys. 25 867-78
289. Wang L, Zhu Y and Jette D 1995 Analytic modeling of the primary x-ray dose deposition kernels (abstract) Med. Phys. 22 977
290. Webb S 1993 The Physics of Three-Dimensional Radiation Therapy. Conformal Radiotherapy, Radiosurgery and Treatment Planning (Medical Science Series) (Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing)
291. _1997 The Physics of Conformal Radiotherapy Advances in Technology (Medical Science Series) (Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing)
292. _1998a Configuration options for intensity-modulated radiation therapy using multiple static fields shaped by a multileaf collimator Phys. Med. Biol. 43 241-60
293. _1998b Configuration options for intensity-modulated radiation therapy using multiple static fields shaped by a multileaf collimator. II: Constraints and limitations on 2D modulation. Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1481-95
294. Webb S and Fox R A 1980 Verification by Monte Carlo methods of a power law tissue-air ratio algorithm for inhomogeneity corrections in photon beam dose calculations Phys. Med. Biol. 25 225-40
295. Weber L, Ahnesjö A, Nilsson P, Saxner M and Knöös T 1996 Verification and implementation of dynamic wedge calculations in a treatment planning system based on a dose-to-energy-fluence formalism Med. Phys. 23 307-16
296. Weber L, Nilsson P and Ahnesjö A 1997 Build-up cap materials for mesurement of photon head-scatter factors Phys. Med. Biol. 42 1875-86
297. Wong E, Van Dyk J and Zhu Y 1997 Lateral electron transport in FFT photon dose calculations Med. Phys. 24 1992-2000
298. Wong E, Zhu Y and Van Dyk J 1996 Theoretical developments on fast Fourier transform convolution dose calculations in inhomogeneous media Med. Phys. 23 1511-21
299. Wong J W and Henkelman R M 1982 Reconsideration of the power-law (Batho) equation for inhomogeneity corrections Med. Phys. 9 521-30
300. _1983 A new approach to CT pixel-based photon dose calculations in heterogeneous media Med Phys. 10 199-208
301. Wong J W, Henkelman R M, Andrew J W, Van Dyk J and Johns H E 1981a Effect of small inhomogeneities on dose in a cobalt-60 beam Med. Phys. 8 783-91
302. Wong J W, Henkelman R M, Fenster A and Johns H E 1981b Second scatter contribution to dose in a cobalt-60 beam Med. Phys. 8 775-82
303. Wong J W and Purdy J A 1987 Basis of recent methods of photon dose calculations 9th Int. Conf. on The Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy (Scheveningen, The Netherlands) ed I A D Bruinvis, P H van der Giessen, H J van Kleffens and F H Wittkampher (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 319-22
304. _1990 On methods of inhomogeneity corrections for photon transport. Med. Phys. 17 807-14
305. _1992 Review of methods of inhomogeneity corrections Advances in Radiation Oncology Physics: Dosimetry, Treatment Planning and Brachytherapy (New York: American Institute of Physics) pp 887-99
306. Wong J W, Slessinger E D, Hermes R E, Offutt C J, Roy T and Vannier M W 1990 Portal dose images I: Quantitative treatment plan verification Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 18 1455-63
307. Wong J W, Slessinger E D, Rosenberger F U, Krippner K and Purdy J A 1984 The delta volume method for 3-dimensional photon dose calculations Int. Conf. on the Use of Computers in Radiation Therapy, VIII ICCR (Toronto, Canada) (Silver Spring, MD: IEEE Computer Society Press) pp 26-30
308. Woo M K 1994 Analysis of photon beam exit dose using photon point kernels Phys. Med. Biol. 39 687-702
309. Woo M K and Cunningham J R 1990 The validity of the density scaling method in primary electron transport for photon and electron beams Med. Phys. 17 187-94
310. Woo M K, Cunningham J R and Jezioranski J J 1990 Extending the concept of primary and scatter separation to the condition of electronic disequilibrium Med. Phys. 17 588-95
311. Worthley B 1966 Equivalent square of rectangular fields (letter) Br. J. Radiol. 39 559
312. Wrede D E 1972 Central axis tissue-air ratios as a function of area-perimeter at depth and their applicability to irregularly shaped fields Phys. Med. Biol. 17 548-54
313. Yan D, Ziaja E, Jaffray D, Wong J, Brabbins D, Vicini F and Martinez A 1998 The use of adaptive radiation therapy to reduce setup error: a prospective clinical study Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 41 715-20
314. Ying X, Geer L Y and Wong J W 1990 Portal dose images II: Patient dose estimation Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 18 1465-75
315. Yu C X, Mackie T R and Wong J W 1995 Photon dose calculation incorporating explicit electron transport Med. Phys. 22 1157-65
316. Yu C X and Wong J W 1993 Implementation of the ETAR method for 3D inhomogeneity correction using FFT Med. Phys. 20 627-32
317. Yu M K, Sloboda R S and Mansour F 1996 Measurement of photon beam backscatter from collimators to the beam monitor chamber using target-current-pulse-counting and telescope techniques Phys. Med. Biol. 41 1107-17
318. Yu M K, Sloboda R S and Murray B 1997 Linear accelerator photon beam quality at off-axis points Med. Phys. 24 233-9
319. Zefkili S, Kappas C and Rosenwald J C 1994 On-axis and off-axis primary dose component in high energy photon beams Med. Phys. 21 799-808
320. Zhu T C and Bjärngard B E 1995 The fraction of photons undergoing head scatter in x-ray beams Phys. Med. Biol. 40 1127-34
321. Zhu T C and Palta J R 1998 Electron contamination in 8 and 18 MV photon beams Med. Phys. 25 12-19
322. Zhu Y and Boyer A 1990 X-ray dose computations in heterogeneous media using 3-dimensional FFT convolution Phys. Med. Biol. 35 351-68
323. Zhu Y and Van Dyk J 1995 Accuracy requirements of the primary x-ray spectrum in dose calculations using FFT convolution techniques Med. Phys. 22 421-6