How identical would cloned children be? An understanding essential to the ethical debate

Human Reproduction Update

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 791-811

  Edwards, R G ^a   Beard, Helen K ^a  

^a Human Reproduction Journals   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cloning; Epigenesis; Ethics; Human; Monozygotic twins

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BLASTOMERE; CELL CYCLE G2 PHASE; CELL CYCLE S PHASE; CELL SYNCHRONIZATION; CENTROMERE; CHILD; CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE; CYTOGENETICS; DNA SYNTHESIS; DONOR; EMBRYO GROWTH; FAMILY; FERTILIZATION IN VITRO; GENE FUNCTION; GENETIC EPISTASIS; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HERITABILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN CLONING; INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION; MEDICAL ETHICS; MITOSIS; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; NONHUMAN; OOCYTE; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGENY; PRONUCLEUS;

GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION;

ANIMALS; BIOETHICS; CELL CYCLE; CLONING, ORGANISM; CYTOGENETICS; EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; NUCLEAR TRANSFER TECHNIQUES; OOCYTES; TWINS, MONOZYGOTIC;

EID: 0032456040     PISSN: 13554786     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/4.6.791     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Agata, K., Kobayashi, H., Itoh, Y. et al. (1993) Genetic characterization of the multipotent dedifferentiated date of pigmented epithelial cells in vitro. Development, 118, 1025-1030.
2. Allison, D.B., Kaprio, J., Korkeila, M. et al. (1996) The heritability of body mass index among an international sample of monozygotic twins reared apart. Int. J. Obesity, 20, 501-506.
3. Allshire, R.C. (1998) General discussion. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 104-113.
4. Antczak, M. and Van Blerkom, J. (1997) Oocyte influences on early development: the regulatory proteins leptin and STAT3 are polarized in mouse and human oocytes and differentially distributed within the cells of the preimplantation stage embryo. Mol. Hum. Reprod., 3, 1067-1086.
5. Ashworth, D., Bishop, M., Campbell, K. et al. (1998) DNA microsatellite analysis of Dolly. Nature, 394, 329.
6. Azambuja, R., Fugger, E.F. and Schulman, J.D. (1996) Human egg activation, cryopreservation and fertilization using a XXX pronucleus. Hum. Reprod., 11, 1990-1991.
7. Baran, G., Vesela, J., Rehak, P. et al. (1995) Localization of fibrillarin and nucleolin in nucleoli of mouse preimplantation embryos. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 40, 305-310.
8. Baranska, W. and Koprowski, H. (1970) Fusion of unfertilised mouse eggs with somatic cells. J. Exp. Zool., 174, 1-14.
9. Barnes, F.L., Collas, P., Powell, R. et al. (1993) Influence of recipient oocyte cell cycle stage on DNA synthesis, nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome constitution and development in nuclear transplant bovine embryos. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 36, 33-41.
10. Basta, M., Morton, N.E. and Mulvihall, J.J. (1990) Inheritance of acute appendicitis: family aggregation and evidence of polygenic transmission. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 46, 377-382.
11. Behboodi, E., Anderson, G.B., BonDurant, R.H. et al. (1995) Birth of large calves that developed from in-vitro developed bovine mebryos. Theriogenology, 44, 227-232.
12. Bestor, T.H. (1998) The host defence function of genomic methylation patterns. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 187-199.
13. Bondioli, K.R. (1993) Nuclear transfer in cattle. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 36, 274-275.
14. Bondioli, K.R., Westhusin, M.E., Looney, C.R. et al. (1990) Production of identical bovine offspring by nuclear transfer. Theriogenology, 33, 165-174.
15. Bouchard, T.J., Lykken, D.T., McGue, M. et al. (1990a) Source of human psychological differences. The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science, 250, 223-228.
16. Bouchard, T.J., Segal, N.L. and Lykken, D.T. (1990b) Genetic and environmental influences on special mental abilities in a sample of twins reared apart. Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol., 39, 193-206.
17. Boué, A. (1998) National responses, France: Comité Consultatif National d'Ethique. In Shenfield, F. (ed.), Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press, Brussels.
18. Boyd, J.D. and Hamilton, W.J. (1970) The Human Placenta. W. Heffer, Cambridge, UK.
19. Braude, P.R., Bolton, V. and Moor, S. (1988) Human gene expression first occurs between four-and eight-cell stages of preimplantation development. Nature, 332, 459-462.
20. Braude, P.R. Pelham, H.R.B. Flach, G. and Lobatto, R. (1979) Posttranscriptional control in the early mouse embryo. Nature, 282, 102-105.
21. Brenton, J.D., Ainscough, J.F.-X., Lyko, F. et al. (1998) Imprinting and gene silencing in mice and Drosophila. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 233-244.
22. Briggs, R. and King, T.J. (1952) Transplantation of living nuclei from blastula cells into enucleated frog's eggs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 38, 455.
23. Brilliant, M.H., Cleve, H. and Edwards, J.H. (1990) Cell lines from monozygotic twins discordant for tuberous sclerosis display proteins and DNA differences. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 47 (Suppl.), A210.
24. Bromhall, J.D. (1975) Nuclear transplantation in the rabbit egg. Nature, 258, 719-721.
25. Bryan, E., (1998) Experiences of twinning. In Shenfield, F. (ed.), Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press, Brussels.
26. Bulmer, M.G. (1970) Biology of Twinning in Man. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
27. Campbell, K.H.S., Ritchie, W.H. and Wilmut, I. (1993) Nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions during the first cell cycle of nuclear transfer reconstructed bovine embryos: implications for deoxyribonucleic acid replication and development. Biol. Reprod., 49, 933-942.
28. Campbell, K.H.S., Loi, P., Cappai, P. and Wilmut, I. (1994) Improved development of ovine nuclear transfer embryos reconstructed during the presumptive S-phase of enucleated activated oocytes. Biol. Reprod., 50, 1385-1393.
29. Campbell, K.H.S., McWhir, J., Ritchie, W.A. and Wilmut, I. (1996) Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line. Nature, 380, 64-66.
30. Cao, Y., Vacanti, J.P., Paige, K.T. et al. (1997) Transplantation of chrondrocytes utilizing a polymer-cell construct to produce tissue-engineered cartilage in the shape of a human ear. Plastic Reconstruct. Surg., 100, 297-302.
31. Chastant, S., Christians, E., Campion, E. and Renard, J.P. (1996) Quantitative control of gene expression by nucleocytoplasmic interactions in early mouse embryos: consequence for reprogrammation by nuclear transfer. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 44, 423-432.
32. Cheong, H.-T., Takahashi, Y. and Kanagawaw, H. (1993) Birth of mice after transplantation of early cell-cycle stage embryonic nuclei into enuclated oocytes. Biol. Reprod., 48, 958-963.
33. Chesne, P., Colas, G., Cognie, Y. et al. (1987) Lamb production using superovulation, embryo bissection and transfer. Theriogenology, 27, 751-757.
34. Christians, E., Campion, E., Thompson, E.M. and Renard, J.-P. (1995) Expression of the HSP 70.1 gene, the major inducible hsp gene, a landmark of early zygotic activity in the mouse embryo, is retricted to the first burst of transcription. Development, 121, 113-122.
35. Chung, C.S., Bixler, D., Watanabe, T. et al. (1986) Segregation analysis of cleft palate: a comparison of Danish and Japanese data. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 39, 603-611.
36. Collas, P. and Barnes, F.L. (1994) Nuclear transplantation by microinjection of inner cell mass and granulosa cell nuclei. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 38, 264-267.
37. Collas, P., Bolise, J.J. and Robl, J.M. (1992a) Influence of cell cycle stage of the donor nucleus on development of nuclear transplant rabbit embryos. Biol. Reprod., 40, 942-500.
38. Collas, P., Pinto-Correia, C., de Leon, A.P. and Robl, J.M. (1992b) Effect of donor cell cycle stage on chromatin and spindle morphology in nuclear transplant embryos. Biol. Reprod., 46, 501-511.
39. Collas P., Sullivan E.J. and Barnes F.L. (1993) Histone H1 kinase activity in bovine oocytes following calcium stimulation. Mol. Reprod Dev., 34, 224-231.
40. Colleau, J.-J., Heyman, Y. and Renard, J.-P. (1998) Les biotechnologies de la reproduction chez les bovins et leurs applications reelles ou potentielles en selection. INRA Prod. Anim., 11, 41-56.
41. Corner, G.W. (1955) Observed embryology of human single-ovum twins and other multiple births. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 70, 933-951.
42. Conaghan, J., Handyside, A.H., Winston, R.M.L. and Leese, H.J. (1993) Effects of pyruvate and glucose on the development of human preimplantation embryos in vitro. J. Reprod. Fertil., 99, 87-95.
43. Cooley, H.M., Keech, C.L., Melny, B.J. et al. (1997) Monozygotic twins discordant for congenital complete heart block. Arthritis Rheumat., 40, 381-384.
44. Costa, T., Greer, W., Rysiecki, G. et al. (1997) Monozygotic twins discordant for Aicardi syndrome. J. Med. Genet., 34, 688-691.
45. Curry, J., Bebb, G., Moffat, J. et al. (1997) Similar mutant frequencies observed between pairs of monozygotic twins. Hum. Mutat., 9, 445-451.
46. Davis, W., de Sousa, P.A. and Schultz, R.M. (1996) Transient expression of translation inhibition factor eIP-4C during the 2-cell stage of the preimplantationmouse embryo: identification by mRNA differential display and the role of DNA replication in zygotic gene activation. Dev. Biol., 174, 190-201.
47. Delabarre, S., Claudon, C. and Laurent, F. (1997) Influence of several extracellular matrix components in primary cultures of bovine mammary epithelial cells. Tiss. Cell, 29, 99-106.
48. Delhaise, F., Ectors, F.J., de Roover, R. et al. (1995). Nuclear transplantation using bovine primordial germ cells from male fetuses. Reprod. Fertil. Dev., 7, 1217-1219.
49. Derom, C., Derom, R., Vlietinck, R. et al. (1993) Iatrogenic multiple pregnancies in East Flanders, Belgium. Fertil. Steril., 60, 493-496.
50. Derom, C., Thiery, E., Vlietinck, R. et al. (1996) Handedness in twins according to zygosity and chorion type: a preliminary report. Behav. Genet., 26, 407-408.
51. Diez, O., Brunet, J., Sanz, J. et al. (1997) Differences in phenotype expression of a new BRCA1 mutation in identical twins. Lancet, 350, 713.
52. du Sart, D., Cancilla, M.R., Earl, E. et al. (1997) A functional neo-centromere formed through activation of a latent human centromere and consisting of non-alpha-satellite DNA. Nat. Genet., 16, 144-153.
53. Ectors, F.J., Delval, A., Smith, L.C. et al. (1995) First and second nuclear transfer in cattle: comparison of efficiency in embryo development and ongoing pregnancies. Theriogenology, 4, 204.
54. Edwards, R.G. and Beard, H.K. (1997) Oocyte polarity and cell determination in early mammalian embryos. Mol. Hum. Reprod., 3, 863-905.
55. Edwards, R.G. and Brody, S.A. (1995) Principles and Practice of Assisted Human Reproduction. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, USA.
56. Edwards, R.G., Crow, J., Dale, S. et al. (1990) Preimplantation diagnosis and recurrent hydatiform mole. Lancet, ii, 1030-1031.
57. Edwards, R.G., Mettler, L. and Walters, E. (1986) Identical twins and in-vitro fertilization. J. In Vitro Fertil Embryo Transfer, 3, 114-117.
58. Elcioglu, N. and Berry, A.C. (1997) Monozygotic twins discordant for the Oculo-oto-radial syndrome (IVIC syndrome). Genet. Couns., 8, 201-206.
59. European Society for Human Reproduction and Embryology (1998) Voluntary moratorium on cloning human beings. In Shenfield, F. (ed.), Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press, Brussels.
60. Fishel, S., Aslam, I. and Tesarik, J. (1996) Spermatid conception: a stage too early, or a time too soon? Hum. Reprod., 11, 1371-1375.
61. Fox, P.W., Hershberger, S.L. and Bouchard, J. (1996) Genetic and environmental contributions to the ascquisition of a motor skill. Nature, 384, 356-358.
62. Fulka J., First N.L. and Moor R.M. (1996) Nuclear transplantation in mammals: remodelling of transplanted nuclei under the influence of maturation promoting factor. Bioessays, 18, 835-840.
63. Gall, L., Dedieu, T., Chesne, P. et al. (1996) Bovine embryo cloning: characterisation of the recipient cytoplasts by phosphorylation patterns and kinase activities. Dev. Growth Diff., 38, 517-525.
64. Gardner, D.K. and Leese, H.J. (1990) Concentrations of nutrients in mouse oviductal fluid and their effects on embryonic development and metabolism in vitro. J. Reprod. Fertil., 88, 361-368.
65. Gardner, R.L. (1975) Analysis of determination and differentiation in the early mammalian embryo using intra and interspecific chimeras. In Markert, C.L. and Papacontstantinou, J. (eds), The Developmental Biology of Reproduction. 33rd Symposium of the Society for Developmental Biology. Academic Press, New York, USA, pp. 207-256.
66. Gardner, R.L. (1996) Can developmentally-significant spatial patterning of the egg be discounted in mammals? Hum. Reprod. Update, 2, 3-27.
67. Gardner, R.L. (1997) The early blastocyst is bilaterally symmetrical and its axis of symmetry is aligned with the animal-vegetal axis of the zygote in the mouse. Development, 124, 289-301.
68. Gautier, J., Norbury, C., Lohka, M. et al (1988) Purified maturation-promoting factor contains the product of a Xenopus homolog of the fission yeast cell cycle control gene cdc2+ Cell, 54, 433-439.
69. Gautier, J., Solomon, M.J., Booher, R.N. et al. (1991) cdc25 is a specific tyrosine phosphatase that directly activates p34cdc2. Cell, 67, 197-211.
70. Gurdon, J.B. (1964) The transplantation of living cell nuclei. Adv. Morphogen., 4, 1-43.
71. Hadfield, R.M., Mardon, H.J., Barlow, D.H. and Kennedy, S.H. (1997) Endometriosis in monozygotic twins. Fertil. Steril., 68, 941-942.
72. Hall, J.G. (1996) Twinning: mechanisms and genetic implications. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev., 6, 343-347.
73. Hardy, K., Warner, A., Winston, R.M.L. and Becker, D.L. (1996) Expression of intercellular junctions during preimplantation development of the human embryo. Mol. Hum. Reprod., 2, 621-632.
74. Harley, C.B., Futcher, A.B. and Greider, C.W. (1990) Telomeres shorten during ageing of human fibroblasts. Nature, 345, 458-460.
75. Heuser, C.H. (1954) Monozygotic twin human embryos with an estimated ovulation age of 17 days. Anat. Rec., 118, 310.
76. Heyman, Y., Degrolard, J., Adenot, P. et al. (1995) Cellular evaluation of bovine nuclear transfer embryos developed in vitro. Reprod. Nutr. Dev., 35, 713-723.
77. Holm, N. V., Hauge, M. and Harvald, B. (1980) Etiological factors of breast cancer elucidated in a study of unselected twins. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 65, 285-298.
78. Hottois, G. (1998) Cloning: some philosophical remarks. In Shenfield, F. (ed.), Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press, Brussels.
79. Illmensee, K. and Hoppe, P. (1981) Nuclear transplantation in Mus musculus: developmental potential of nuclei from preimplantation donors. Cell, 23, 9-18.
80. Jaenisch, R., Beard, C., Lee, J. et al. (1998) Mammalian X chromosome inactivation. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 200-213.
81. Johnson, R.T. and Rao, P.N. (1970) Mammalian cell fusion: induction of premature chromosome condensation in interphase nuclei. Nature, 226, 717-722.
82. Johnson, W.H., Loskutoff, N.M., Plante, Y. and Betteridge, K.J. (1995) Production of four identical calves by the separation of blastomeres from an in vivo derived 4-cell embryo. Vet. Rec., 137, 15-16.
83. Jorgensen, P.-M., Brundell, E., Starborg, M. and Hoog, C. (1998) A subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex is a centromere-associated protein in mammalian cells. Mol. Cell Biol., 18, 468-476.
84. Kanka, J., Hozak, P., Heyman, Y. et al. (1996) Transcriptional activity and nucleolar ultrastructure of embryonic rabbit nuclei after transplantation to enucleated oocytes. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 43, 135-144.
85. Kaye, C.I. (1981) Classification, etiology and genetic aspects of craniofacial anomalies. Otolaryng. Clin. N. Am., 14, 827-864.
86. Keefer, C.L., Stice, S.L. and Matthews, D.L. (1994) Bovine inner cell mass cells as donor nuclei in the production of nuclear transfer embryos and calves. Biol. Reprod., 50, 935-939.
87. Kono, T., Obata, Y., Yoshimzu, T. et al. (1996) Epigenetic modifications during oocyte growth correlates with extended parthenogenetic development in the mouse. Nat. Genet., 13, 91-94.
88. Kruip, Th. A.M. and den Daas, J.H.G. (1997) In-vitro produced and cloned embryos: effects on pregnancy, parturition and offspring. Theriogenology, 47, 43-52.
89. Kubiak, J., Weber, M., de Pennart, H. et al. (1991) The metaphase II arrest in mouse oocytes is controlled through microtubule dependent destruction of cyclin B in the presence of CSF. EMBO J., 12, 3773-3778.
90. Kurtz, S., Rossi, J., Petko, L. and Lindquist, S. (1986) An ancient developmental induction: heat shock proteins induced in sporulation and oogenesis. Science, 231, 1154-1157.
91. Kwon, O.Y. and Kono, T. (1996) Production of identical sextuplet mice by transferring metaphase nuclei from 4-cell embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 93, 13010-13013.
92. Lamberson, W.R. (1994) Production of genetically identical swine: uses for families with reduced phenotypic variation. Theriogenology, 41, 453-460.
93. Latham, K.E. and Solter, D. (1991) Effect of egg composition on the developmental capacity of androgenetic mouse embryos. Development, 113, 561-568.
94. Lavoir, M.-C., Kelk, D., Rumph, N. et al. (1997) Transcription and translation in bovine nuclear transfer embryos. Biol. Reprod., 57, 204-213.
95. 1 nuclei in Xenopus egg extracts. Cell, 69, 151-158.
96. Levron, J., Munne, S., Willadsen, S. et al. (1995) Male and female genomes associated in a single pronucleus in human zygotes. Biol. Reprod., 52, 653-657.
97. Lin, T.P., Florence, J. and Oh, J.O. (1973) Cell fusion induced by a virus within the zona pellucida of mouse eggs. Nature, 242, 47-49.
98. Lowe, K.C., Davey, M.R. and Power, J.B. (1996) Plant tissue culture: past, present and future. Plant Tiss. Cult. Biotechnol., 2, 175-186.
99. McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1986) Nucleocytoplasmic interactions in the mouse embryo. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 97 (Suppl.), 277-289.
100. Machin, G.A. (1996) Some causes of genotypic and phenotypic discordance in monozygotic twin pairs. Am. J. Med. Genet., 61, 216-228.
101. Masui, Y. and Markert, C.L. (1971) Cytoplasmic control of nuclear behavior during meiotic maturation of frog oocytes. J. Exp. Zool., 177, 129-146.
102. Marx, J.L. (1988) Cloning in sheep and cattle embryos. Science, 239, 463-464.
103. Majumder, S., Miranda, M. and DePamphilis, M.L. (1993) Analysis of gene expression in mouse preimplantation embryos demonstrates that the primary role of enhancers is to relieve repression of promoters. EMBO J., 12, 1131-1140.
104. Mazaki, Y., Mochii, M., Kodama, R. and Eguchi, G. (1996) Role of integrins in differentiation of chick retinal pigmented epithelial cells in vitro. Dev. Growth Differ., 38, 429-437.
105. Meng, L., Ely, J.J., Stouffer, R.L. and Wolf, D.P. (1997) Rhesus monkeys produced by nuclear transfer. Biol. Reprod., 57, 454-459.
106. Monk, M., Roubelik, M. and Lehnert, S. (1987) Temporal and regional changes in DNA methylation in the embryonic, extraembryonic and germ cell lineages during mouse embryonic development. Development, 99, 371-382.
107. Murphy, T.D. and Karpen, G.H. (1995) Localization of centromere function in a Drosophila minicentromere. Cell, 82, 599-699.
108. Murphy, T.D. and Karpen, G.H. (1998) Centromeres take flight: alpha satellite and the quest for the human centromere. Cell, 93, 317-320.
109. Najfield, V., Vlachos, A., Parker, R. et al. (1997) Evidence for the embryonic origin of partial chromosome 7 deletion in monozygotic twins with juvenile chronis myelogenous leukemia. Leukemia, 11, 306-310.
110. Nan, X., Cross, S. and Bird, A. (1998) Gene silencing by methyl-CpG-binding proteins. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK.
111. Nash, M.L., Hungerford, L.L., Nash, T.G. and Zinn, G.M. (1996) Risk factors for perinatal and postnatal mortality in lambs. Vet. Rec., 159, 64-67.
112. National Bioethics Advisory Commission (1997) Report on cloning by the U.S. Bioethics Advisory Commission: ethical considerations. Hum. Reprod. Update, 3, 29-41.
113. News in Brief (1997) Polly joins Dolly in the record books. Nature, 388, 414.
114. Norris, M.L., Barton, S.C. and Surani, M.A.H. (1990) The differential roles of parental genomes in mammalian development. Oxford Rev. Reprod. Biol., 12, 225-244.
115. Nuti Ronchi, V. (1995) Mitosis and meiosis in cultured plant cells and their relationship to variant cell types arising in culture. Int. Rev. Cytol., 158, 65-140.
116. Parokonny, A.S., Marshall, J.A., Bennett, M.D. et al. (1997) Homeologous pairing and rercombination in backcross derivatives of tomato somatic hybrids [Lycopersicon esculentum (+) L.peruvianum]. Theor. Appl. Genet., 94, 713-723.
117. Panning, B. and Jaenisch, R. (1998) RNA and the epigenetic regulation of X chromosome inactivation. Cell, 93, 305-308.
118. Pike, A., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E.M. and Plomin, R. (1996) Using MZ differences in the search for nonshared environmental effets. J. Child Psychiat. Psychol., 37, 695-704.
119. Pinto-Correia, C., Long, C., Chang, T. and Robl, J.M. (1995) Factors involved in nuclear reprogramming during early development in the rabbit. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 40, 292-304.
120. Poccia, D. and Collas, P. (1997) Nuclear envelope dynamics during male pronuclear development. Dev. Growth Differ., 39, 541-550.
121. Poltarak, M., Wright, R., Hemperly, J.J. et al. (1997) Monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia are discordant for N-CAM and L1 in CSF. Brain Res., 751, 152-154.
122. Prather, R.S. (1996) Progress in cloning embryos from domesticated livestock. Proc. Soc. Biol. Med., 212, 38-43.
123. Prather, R.S., Sims, M.M., Robl, J.M. et al. (1987) Nuclear transplantation in the bovine embryo: assessment of donor nuclei and recipient oocyte. Biol. Reprod., 37, 859-866.
124. Prather, R.S., Simms, M.M., Maul, G.G. et al. (1989) Nuclear lamin antigens are developmentally regulated during porcine and bovine embryogenesis. Biol. Reprod., 41, 123-132.
125. Rajan, J.V., Wang, M., Marquis, T. and Chodosh, L.A. (1996) BRCA2 is coordinately regulated with Brcal during proliferation and differentiation in mammary epithelial cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 13078-13083.
126. Reik, W., Roemer, I., Barton, S.C. et al. (1993) Adult phenotype in the mouse can be affected by epigenetic events in the early embryo. Development, 119, 933-942.
127. Renard, J.-P. (1998) Cloning in animal biology and research. In Shenfield, F. (ed.), Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press, Brussels.
128. Riese, M.L. (1996) Temperament development to 30 months of age in discordant twin pairs. Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol., 45, 439-447.
129. Rizk, B., Atterbury, J.L. and Groome, L.J. (1997) Reproductive risks of cocaine. Hum. Reprod. Update, 3, 43-55.
130. Robertson, J.A. (1997) Cloning and beyond: do we need new regulatory mechanisms. In Andrews, L. (ed.), Changing Conceptions. Proceedings of a Symposium of the Institute of Science, Law and Techology, Chicago, USA.
131. Robl, J.M., Prather, R., Barnes, F. et al. (1987) Nuclear transplantation in bovine embryos. J. Anim. Sci., 64, 642-647.
132. Roemer, I., Reik, W., Dean, W. and Klose, J. (1997) Epigenetic inheritance in the mouse. Curr. Biol., 7, 277-280.
133. Ronnemaa, T., Karonen, S.-L., Rissanen, A. et al. (1997) Relation between plasma leptin levels and measures of body fat in identical twins discordant for obesity. Ann. Int. Med., 126, 26-31.
134. Rotter, J.I., Wong, F.L., Samloff, I.M. et al. (1982) Evidence for a major dominance component in the variation of serum pepsinogen levels. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 34, 395-401.
135. Sagata, N., Watanabe, N., Vande Woude, G.F. and Ikawa, Y. (1989) The c-mos proto-oncogene product is a cytostatic factor responsible for meiotic arrest in vertebrate eggs. Nature, 342, 512-518.
136. Sagata, N. (1996) Meiotic metaphase arrest in animal oocytes: its mechanisms and biological significance. Trends Cell Biol., 6, 22-28.
137. Sagata, N. (1997) What does Mos do in oocytes and somatic cells? Bioessays, 19, 13-21.
138. Sanderson, I.R., Ezzell, R.M., Keddinger, M. et al. (1996) Human fetal enterocytes in vitro - modulation of the phenotype by extracellular matrix. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 93, 7717-7722.
139. Schworm, H.D., Jedele, K.B., Holinski, E. et al. (1996) Discordant monozygotic twins with the Schimmelpenning-Feuersstein-Mims syndrome. Clin. Genet., 50, 393-397.
140. Signer, E.N., Dubrova, Y.E., Jeffreys, A.J. et al. (1998) DNA fingerprinting Dolly. Nature, 394, 329-330.
141. Shenfield, F. (ed.) (1998) Societal, Medical and Ethical Implications of Animal Cloning. European Commission Press.
142. Sims, M. and First, N.L. (1994) Production of calves by transfer of nuclei from cultured inner cell mass cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 91, 6143-6147.
143. Sittinger, M. (1995) Tissue engineering. Artifical tissue replacement containing vital components. Laryngo-Rhino-Otol., 74, 695-699.
144. Smith, L.C. and Wilmut, I. (1989) Influence of nuclear and cytoplasmic activity on the development in vivo of sheep embryos after nuclear transplantation. Biol. Reprod., 40, 1027-1035.
145. Stice, S.L. and Keefer, C.L. (1993) Multiple generational bovine embryo cloning. Biol. Reprod., 48, 715-719.
146. Stice, C. and Robl, J.M. (1988) Nuclear reprogramming in nuclear transplant rabbit embryos. Biol. Reprod., 39β 657-664.
147. Stice, S., Strelchenko, N.S., Keefer, C.L. and Matthews, L. (1996) Pluripotent bovine embryonic cell lines direct embryonic development following nuclear transfer. Biol. Reprod., 54, 100-110.
148. Su, T.T., Campbell, S.D. and O'Farrell, P.H. (1998) The cell cycleprogram in germ cells of the Drosophila embryo. Dev. Biol., 196, 160-170.
149. Sullivan, B.A. and Schwartz, S. (1997) Identification of centromeric antigens in dicentric Robertsonian translocations: CENP-C and CENP-E are necessary components of functional centromeres. Hum. Mol. Genet., 4, 2189-2197.
150. Surani, M.A. (1998) Imprinting and the initiation of gene silencing in the germ line. Cell, 93, 309-312.
151. Swan, K. and Ozil, J.P. (1994) Dynamics of the calcium signal that triggers mammalian egg activation. Int. Rev. Cytol., 152, 183-222.
152. Szollosi, D., Czolowska, R., Szollosi, M.S. and Tarkowski, A.K. (1988) Remodelling of mouse thymocyte nuclei depends on the time of their transfer into activated, homologous oocytes. J. Cell Sci., 91, 603-613.
153. Tarkowski, A.K. and Balakier, H. (1980) Nucleo-plasmic interactions in cell hybrids between mouse oocytes, blastomeres and somatic cells. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 55, 319-330.
154. Tawil, R., Storvick, D., Weiffenbach, B. et al. (1993) Chromosome 4q DNA rearrangement in monozygotic twins discordant for facioscapulo humeral muscular dystrophy. Hum. Mutat., 22, 492-494.
155. Tesarik, J., Sousa, M., Greco, E. and Mendoza, C. (1998) Spermatids as gametes: indications and limitations. Hum. Reprod., 13 (Suppl. 3), 89-107.
156. Tesarik, J. and Mendoza, C. (1996) Spermatid injection into human oocytes. I. Laboratory techniques and special features of zygote development. Hum. Reprod., 11, 772-779.
157. Testart, J. (1998). Safety of embryo cryopreservation: statistical facts and artefacts. Hum. Reprod., 13, 783-785.
158. Tong, S., Caddy, D. and Short, R.V. (1997) Use of dizygotic to monozygotic twinning ratio as a measure of fertility. Lancet, 349, 843-845.
159. Tsunoda, Y., Yasui, T., Shioda, Y. et al. (1987) Full term development of mouse blastomere nuclei transplanted into enucleated two-cell mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 242, 147-151.
160. Turner, B.M. (1991) Histone acetylation and control of gene expression. J. Cell Sci., 99, 13-20.
161. Urven, L.E., Weng, D.E., Schumaker, A.L. et al. (1993) Differential gene expression in fetal mouse germ cells. Biol. Reprod., 48, 564-574.
162. Vacanti, J.P. (1988) Beyond transplantation. Arch. Surg., 123, 545-549.
163. Van Beijsterveldt, C.E., Molenaar, P.C.M., de Greus, E.J.C. et al. (1996) Hertitability of human brain functioning as assessed by electroecephalography. Hum. Genet., 58, 562-573.
164. Van Stekelenburg-Hamers, A.E.P., Rebel, H.G., Van Inzen, W.G. et al. (1994) Stage-specific appearance of mouse antigen TEC-3 in normal and nuclear transfer bovine embryos: re-expression after nuclear transfer. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 37, 27-33.
165. Vernet, M., Cavard, C., Zider, A. et al. (1993) In vitro manipulation of early mouse embryos induces HIV1-LTRlacZ transgene expression. Development, 119, 1293-1300.
166. Vourc'h, C., Taruscio, D., Boyle, A.L. and Ward, B.C. (1993) Cell-cycle dependent distribution of centromeres, telomeres and chromosome-specific subsatellite domains in interphase nuclei of mouse lymphocytes. Exp. Cell Res., 205, 142-151.
167. Waddington, C.H. (1956) Principles of Embryology. Allen and Unwin, London, UK.
168. Wakayama, T., Perry, A.C.F., Zuccotti, M. et al. (1998) Full term development of mice from enucleated oocytes injected with cumulus cell nuclei. Nature, 394, 364-374.
169. Walker, S.K., Heard, TM. and Seamark, R.F. (1992) In vitro culture of sheep embryos without co-culture: Success and perpectives. Theriogenology, 37, 111-126.
170. Watanabe, N., Vande Woude, G.F., Ikawa, Y. and Sagata, N. (1989) Specific proteolysis of the c-mos proto-oncogene product by calpain on fertilization of Xenopus eggs. Nature, 342, 505-511.
171. Weins, G.R. and Sorger, P.K. (1998) Centromeric chromatin and epigenetic effects in kinetochore assembly. Cell, 93, 313-316.
172. Wenstrom, K.D., Syrop, C.H., Hammitt, D.G. and Van Voorhis, B.J. (1993) Increased risk of monochorionic twinning associated with assisted reproduction. Fertil. Steril., 60, 510-514.
173. Willadsen, S. (1986) Nuclear transplantation in sheep embryos. Nature, 320, 63-65.
174. Williams, T.J., Elsden, R.P. and Seidel, G.E. (1984) Pregnancy rates with bisected bovine embryos. Theriogenology, 22, 521-531.
175. Wilmut, I., Schnieko, A.E., McWhir, J. et al. (1997) Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature, 385, 10-13.
176. Wilson, R. (1983) The Louisville Twin Study: developmental synchronies in behavior. Child Dev., 54, 298.
177. Wolfe, S.L. (1981) Biology of the Cell. Student Edition no 2. Wadsworth International, UK.
178. Wolffe, A.P. (1998) Introduction. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 1-5.
179. Worrad, D.M., Turner, B.M. and Schultz, R.M. (1995) Temporally retricted spatial localization of acetylated isoforms of histone H4 and RNA polymerase II in the 2-cell mouse embryo. Development, 121, 2949-2959.
180. Wutz, A., Smrzka, O.W. and Barlow, D.P. (1998) Making sense of imprinting in the mouse. In Chadwick, D.J. and Cardew, G. (eds), Epigenetics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 251-263.
181. Yang, Z., Goff, A.K. and Smith, L.C. (1995) Protein synthesis patterns in nuclear transfer, parthenogenetically activated and IVF bovine embryos during early development. Theriogenology, 43, 361.