Can developmentally significant spatial patterning of the egg be discounted in mammals?

Human Reproduction Update

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 3-27

  Gardner, R L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Egg organization; Mammals; Spatial patterning

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL CELL; BLASTOCYST; BLASTOMERE; CELL AGGREGATION; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL POLARITY; CHROMOSOME; CYTOPLASM; ECTODERM; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; EMBRYO PATTERN FORMATION; GENOME; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; INNER CELL MASS; MAMMAL; MEIOSIS; NONHUMAN; OOCYTE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPERMATOZOON; TROPHOBLAST; ZYGOTE;

ANIMALS; BLASTOCYST; CELL POLARITY; MAMMALS; MORPHOGENESIS; OVUM;

EID: 0029981357     PISSN: 13554786     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/2.1.3     Document Type: Review

References (226)

1. Amoroso, E.C. (1981) Viviparity. In Glasser, S.R. and Bullock, D.W. (eds), Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Implantation. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 3-25.
2. Austin, C.R. (1961) The Mammalian Egg. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
3. Austin, C.R. and Bishop, M.W.H. (1957) Fertilization in mammals. Biol. Rev., 32, 296-349.
4. Bachvarova, R. and De Leon, V. (1980) Polyadenylated RNA of mouse ova and loss of maternal RNA in early development. Dev. Biol., 74, 1-8.
5. Bachvarova, R. and Moy, K. (1985) Autoradiographic studies on the distribution of labelled maternal RNA in early mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 233, 397-403.
6. Balakier, H. and Pedersen, R.A. (1982) Allocation of cells to inner cell mass and trophectoderm lineages in preimplantation mouse embryos. Dev. Biol., 90, 352-362.
7. Balinsky, B.I. (1970) An Introduction to Embryology. 3rd edn. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
8. Bardsley, A., McDonald, K. and Boswell, R.E. (1993) Distribution of tudor protein in the Drosophila embryo suggests separate functions based on site of localization. Development, 119, 207-219.
9. Barres, B.A., Hart, I.K., Coles, H.S.R., Burne, J.F., Voyvodic, J.T., Richardson, W.D. and Raff, M.C. (1992) Cell death and control of cell survival in the oligodendrocyte lineage. Cell, 70, 31-46.
10. Beddington, R.S.P. (1994) Induction of a second neural axis by the mouse node. Development, 120, 613-620.
11. Bennett, J. (1982) Sperm entry point is related to early division of mouse blastomeres. J. Cell Biol., 95, 163 (Abstr.).
12. Bodemann, E. (1935) A case of uniovular twins in the mouse. Anat. Rec., 62, 291-294.
13. Boerjan, M. and te Kronnie, G. (1993) The segregation of inner and outer cells in porcine embryos follows a different pattern compared to segregation in mouse embryos. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol., 203, 113-116.
14. Bolton, V.N., Oades, P.S. and Johnson, M.H. (1984) The relationship between cleavage, DNA replication, and gene expression in the mouse 2-cell embryo. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 79, 139-163.
15. Borghese, E. and Cassini, A. (1963) Cleavage of the mouse egg. In Rose, G.G. (ed.), Cinemicrography in Cell Biology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 263-277.
16. Braden, A.W.H. (1959) Strain differences in the morphology of the gametes of the mouse. Aust. J. Biol. Sci., 12, 65-72.
17. Braude, P., Pelham, H., Flach, G. and Lobatto, R. (1979) Post-translational control in the early mouse embryo. Nature, 282, 102-105.
18. Buehr, M. and McLaren, A. (1974) Size regulation in chimaeric mouse embryos. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 31, 229-234.
19. Calarco, P.G. (1991) Fertilization of the mouse oocyte. J. Electron Microsc. Techn., 17, 401-411.
20. Calarco, P.G. (1995) Polarization of mitochondria in the unfertilized mouse oocyte. Dev. Genet., 16, 36-43.
21. Calarco-Gillam, P. C., Siebert, M. C., Hubble, R., Mitchison, T. and Kirschner, M. (1983) Centrosome development in early mouse embryos as defined by an autoantibody against pericentriolar material. Cell, 35, 621-629.
22. Cameron, R.A., Hough-Evans, B.R., Britten, R.J. and Davidson, E.H. (1987) Lineage and fate of each blastomere of the eight-cell sea urchin embryo. Genes Dev., 1, 75-84.
23. Cameron, R.A., Fraser, S.E., Britten, R.J. and Davidson, E.H. (1989) The oral-aboral axis of a sea urchin embryo is specified by first cleavage. Development, 106, 641-647.
24. Capco, D.G. and McGaughey, R.W. (1986) Cytoskeletal reorganization during early mammalian development: analysis using embedment-free sections. Dev. Biol., 115, 446-458.
25. Capco, D.G., Gallicano, G.I., McGaughey, R.W., Downing, K.H. and Larabell, C.A. (1993) Cytoskeletal sheets of mammalian eggs and embryos - a lattice-like network of intermediate filaments. Cell Motil. Cytoskel., 24, 85-99.
26. Cattanach, B.M. (1986) Parental origin effects in mice. J. Embryo. Exp. Morphol., 97 (Suppl.), 137-150.
27. Chalfie, M., Tu, Y., Eusjirchen, G., Ward, W.W. and Prasher, D.C. (1994) Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene expression. Science, 263, 802-805.
28. Clegg, K.B. and Piko, L. (1983) Poly(A) length, cytoplasmic adenylation and synthesis of poly A+ RNA in early mouse embryos. Dev. Biol., 95, 331-341.
29. Coles, H.S.R., Burne, J.F. and Raff, M.C. (1993) Large-scale normal cell death in the developing rat kidney and its reduction by epidermal growth factor. Development, 118, 777-784.
30. Copp, A.J. (1978) Interaction between inner cell mass and trophectoderm of the mouse blastocyst. I. A study of cellular proliferation. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 48, 109-125.
31. Cruz, Y.P. (1990) Mosaicism in the mouse trophectoderm. Tissue Cell, 22, 103-110.
32. Cruz, Y.P. and Pedersen, R.A. (1985) Cell fate in the polar trophectoderm of mouse blastocysts as studied by microinjection of cell lineage tracers. Dev. Biol., 112, 73-83.
33. Dalcq, A.M. (1955) Processes of synthesis during early development of rodents' eggs and embryos. Proc. Soc. Study Fertil., 7, 113-123.
34. Dalcq, A. M. (1957) Introduction to General Embryology. Oxford University Press, London.
35. Davidson, E.H. (1986) Gene Activity in Early Development. 3rd edn. Academic Press, Orlando.
36. Davidson, E.H. (1989) Lineage-specific gene expression and the regulative capacities of the sea urchin embryo: a proposed mechanism. Development, 105, 421-445.
37. Denker, H.-W. (1976) Formation of the blastocyst: determination of trophoblast and embryonic knot. Current Topics Pathol., 62, 59-79.
38. Denker, H.-W. (1981) The determination of trophoblast and embryoblast cells during cleavage in the mammal: new trends in the interpretation of mechanisms. Verh. Anat. Ges., 7, S.445-448.
39. Denker, H.-W. (1983) Cell lineage, determination and differentiation in earliest developmental stages in mammals. Bibl. Anat., 24, 22-58.
40. Dexter, T.M., Raff, M.C. and Wyllie, A.D.H. (eds) (1994) Death from inside-out: the role of apoptosis in development, tissue homeostasis and malignancy. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B. 345, 1-465.
41. Dyce, J., George, M., Goodall, H. and Fleming, T.P. (1987) Do trophectoderm and inner cell mass cells in the mouse blastocyst maintain discrete lineages? Development, 100, 685-698.
42. Eager, D.D., Johnson, M.H. and Thurley, K.W. (1976) Ultrastructural studies on the surface membrane of the mouse egg. J. Cell Sci., 22, 345-353.
43. Edgar, L.G., Wolf, N. and Wood, W.B. (1994) Early transcription in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos. Development, 120, 443-451.
44. El-Shershaby, A.M. and Hinchliffe, J.R. (1974) Cell redundancy in the zona-intact preimplantation mouse blastocyst: a light and electron microscope study of dead cells and their fate. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 31, 643-654.
45. Enders, A.C. and Schlafke, S. (1981) Differentiation of the blastocyst of the Rhesus monkey. Am. J. Anat., 162, 1-21.
46. Evsikov, S.V., Morozova, L.M. and Solomko, A.P. (1994) Role of ooplasmic segregation in mammalian development. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol., 203, 199-204.
47. Fairbairn, L.J., Cowling, G.J., Reipert, B.M. and Dexter, T.M. (1993) Suppression of apoptosis allows differentiation and development of a multipotent hemopoietic cell line in the absence of added growth factors. Cell, 74, 823-832.
48. Fehilly, C. and Willadsen, S.M. (1986) Embryo manipulation in farm animals. Oxford Rev. Reprod. Biol., 8, 379-413.
49. Fehilly, C.B., Willadsen, S.M. and Tucker, E.M. (1984) Experimental chimaerism in sheep. J. Reprod. Fertil., 70, 347-351.
50. Flach, G., Johnson, M.H., Braude, P.R., Taylor, R.A.S. and Bolton, V.N. (1982) The transition from maternal to embryonic control in the 2-cell mouse embryo. EMBO J., 1, 681-686.
51. Flaherty, S.P. and Swann, N.J. (1993) Biotinylation of proteins on the surface of zona-free mouse oocytes. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 35, 285-292.
52. Fleming, T.P. (1987) A quantitative analysis of cell allocation to trophectoderm and inner cell mass in the mouse blastocyst. Dev. Biol., 119, 520-531.
53. Fleming, T.P. (1992) Trophectoderm biogenesis in the preimplantation mouse embryo. In Fleming, T.P. (ed.), Epithelial Organization and Development. Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 111-136.
54. Fleming, T.P., Warren, P.D., Chisholm, J.C. and Johnson, M.H. (1984) Trophectodermal processes regulate the expression of totipotency within the inner cell mass of mouse expanding blastocysts. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 84, 63-90.
55. Fourcroy, J.L. (1982) RNA synthesis in immature mouse oocyte development. J. Exp. Zool., 219, 257-266.
56. Fujisue, M., Kobayakawa, Y. and Yamana, K. (1993) Occurrence of dorsal axis-inducing activity around the vegetal pole of an uncleaved Xenopus egg and displacement to the equatorial region by cortical rotation. Development, 118, 163-170.
57. Gabel, C.A., Eddy, E.M. and Shapiro, B.M. (1979) After fertilization, sperm surface components remain as a patch in sea urchin and mouse embryos. Cell, 18, 207-215.
58. Gallicano, G.I., McGaughey, R.W. and Capco, D.G. (1991) Cytoskeleton of the mouse egg and embryo: reorganization of planar elements. Cell Motil. Cytoskel., 18, 143-154.
59. Gallicano, G.I., McGaughey, R.W. and Capco, D.G. (1992) Cytoskeletal sheets appear as universal components of mammalian eggs. J. Exp. Zool., 263, 194-203.
60. Gardner, R.L. (1983) Origin and differentiation of extraembryonic tissues in the mouse. Int. Rev. Exp. Pathol., 24, 63-133.
61. Gardner, R.L. (1985) Clonal analysis of early mammalian development. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B, 312, 163-178.
62. Gardner, R.L. (1990) Location and orientation of implantation. In Edwards, R.G. (ed.), Establishing a Successful Human Pregnancy: Serono Symposia Publications, Raven Press, New York, pp. 225-238.
63. Gardner, R.L. and Nichols, J. (1991) An investigation of the fate of cells transplanted orthotopically between morulae/nascent blastocysts in the mouse. Hum. Reprod., 6, 25-35.
64. Gardner, R.L., Meredith, M.M. and Altman, D.G. (1992) Is the anterior-posterior axis of the fetus specified before implantation in the mouse? J. Exp. Zool., 264, 437-443.
65. Garner, W. and McLaren, A. (1974) Cell distribution in chimaeric mouse embryos before implantation. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 32, 495-503.
66. Gearhart, J., Shaffer, R.M., Mussen, J.M. and Oster-Granite, M.H. (1982) Cell lineage analyses of preimplantation mouse embryos after blastomere injection with horseradish peroxidase. Pediatr. Res., 16, 111.
67. Gilbert, S.F. (1994) Developmental Biology, 4th edn. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
68. Gilbert, S.F. and Solter, D. (1985) Onset of paternal and maternal Gpi-1 expression in preimplantation mouse embryos. Dev. Biol., 109, 515-517.
69. Gluecksohn-Schoenheimer, S. (1949) The effects of a lethal mutation responsible for duplications and twinning in mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 110, 47-76.
70. Graham, C.F. (1971) The design of the mouse blastocyst. In Davies, D.D. and Balls, M. (eds), Control Mechanisms of Growth and Differentiation. Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology, Symposium 25, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 371-378.
71. Graham, C.F. and Deussen, Z.A. (1978) Features of cell lineage in preimplantation mouse development. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 48, 53-72.
72. Graves, R.A., Marzluff, W.E., Giebelhaus, D.H. and Schultz, G.A. (1985) Quantitative and qualitative changes in histone gene expression during early mouse development. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 82, 5685-5689.
73. Gregory, P.W. (1930) The early embryology of the rabbit. Cont. Embry. Carnegie Inst. Wash., 21, 141-168.
74. Gresson, R.A.R. (1942) A study of the cytoplasmic inclusions during maturation, fertilization and the first cleavage division of the egg of the mouse. Q. J. Microsc. Sci., 83, 35-59.
75. Gulyas, B. (1975) A reexamination of cleavage patterns in eutherian mammalian eggs: rotation of blastomere pairs during second cleavage in the rabbit. J. Exp. Zool., 193, 235-248.
76. Gundersen, G.G. and Shapiro, B.M. (1984) Sperm surface proteins persist after fertilization. J. Cell Biol., 99, 1343-1353.
77. Gundersen, G.G., Gabel, C.A. and Shapiro, B.M. (1982) An intermediate state of fertilization involved in internalization of sperm component. Dev. Biol., 93, 59-72.
78. Gundersen, G.G, Medill, L. and Shapiro, B.M. (1986) Sperm surface proteins are incorporated into the egg membrane and cytoplasm after fertilization. Dev. Biol., 113, 207-215.
79. Gurdon, J.B. (1991) The generation of diversity and pattern in animal development. Cell, 68, 185-199.
80. Gyllensten, U., Wharton, D., Josefson, A. and Wilson, A.C. (1991) Paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in mice. Nature, 352, 255-257.
81. Handyside, A.H. (1978) Time of commitment of inside cells isolated from preimplantation mouse embryos. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 45, 37-53.
82. Handyside, A.H. and Hunter, S. (1986) Cell division and death in the mouse blastocyst before implantation. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol., 195, 519-526.
83. Hardy, K. and Handyside, A.H. (1993) Cell allocation in twin half mouse embryos bisected at the 8-cell stage: implications for preimplantation diagnosis. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 36, 16-22.
84. Hardy, K. Handyside, A.H. and Winston, R.M.L. (1989) The human blastocyst: cell number, death and allocation during late preimplantation development in vitro. Development, 107, 597-604.
85. Harper, M.I. and Monk, M. (1983) Evidence for translation of HPRT enzyme on maternal mRNA in early mouse embryos. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 74, 15-28.
86. Hay, B.A., Wolff, T. and Rubin, G.M. (1994) Expression of baculovirus p35 prevents cell death in Drosophila. Development, 120, 2121-2129.
87. Hillman, N., Sherman, M.I. and Graham, C.F. (1972) The effect of spatial arrangement on cell determination during mouse development. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 28, 263-278.
88. Hogan, B. and Tilly, R. (1978) In vitro development of inner cell masses isolated immunosurgically from mouse blastocysts. II. Inner cell masses from 3.5 to 4.0 day p.c. blastocysts. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 45, 107-121.
89. Holowacz, T. and Elinson, R.P. (1993) Cortical cytoplasm, which induces dorsal axis formation in Xenopus, is inactivated by UV irradiation of the oocyte. Development, 119, 277-285.
90. Hoppe, P.C. and Whitten, W.K. (1972) Does X chromosome inactivation occur during mitosis of first cleavage? Nature, 239, 520.
91. Horstadius, S. (1937) Investigations as to the localization of the micromere-, the skeleton-, and the entoderm-forming material in the unfertilized egg of Arbacia punctulata. Biol. Bull., Mar. Biol. Lab., Wood's Hole, 73, 295-316.
92. Horstadius, S. (1973) Experimental Embryology of Echinoderms. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
93. Howlett, S.K. and Bolton, V.N. (1985) Sequence and regulation of morphological and molecular events during the first cycle of mouse embryogenesis. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 87, 175-206.
94. Hsu, Y.-C. and Gonda, M.A. (1980) Monozygotic twin formation in mouse embryos in vitro. Science, 209, 605-606.
95. Illmensee, K. and Mahowald, A.P. (1974) Transplantation of posterior pole plasm in Drosophila. Induction of germ cells at the anterior pole of the egg. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 71, 1016-1020.
96. Jeffery, W.R. (1989) Localized mRNA and the egg cytoskeleton. Int. Rev. Cytol., 119, 151-195.
97. Jeffery, W.R. (1992) A gastrulation centre in the ascidian egg. Development (Suppl.), 53-63.
98. Johnson, M.H. (1980) Membrane events associated with the generation of a blastocyst. Int. Rev. Cytol. Suppl., 12, 1-37.
99. Johnson, M.H. (1996) The origin of pluriblast and trophoblast in the eutherian conceptus. Reprod. Fertil. Dev., in press.
100. Johnson, M.H. and Ziomek, C.A. (1981) The foundation of two distinct cell lineages within the mouse morula. Cell, 24, 71-80.
101. Johnson, M.H., Eager, D.D., Muggleton-Harris, A. and Grave, H.M. (1975) Mosaicism in the organization of concanavalin A receptors on the surface membrane of mouse eggs. Nature, 257, 321-322.
102. Johnson, M.H., Pratt, H.P.M. and Handyside, A.H. (1981) The generation and recognition of positional information in the preimplantation mouse embryo. In Glasser, S.R. and Bullock, D.W. (eds), Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Implantation. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 55-74.
103. Johnson, M.H., Maro, B. and Takeichi, M. (1986) The role of cell adhesion in the synchronization and orientation of polarization in 8-cell mouse blastomeres. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 93, 239-255.
104. Jones-Seaton, A. (1950) Etude de l'organisation cytoplasmic de l'oeuf de Rongeurs principalement quant a la basophile ribonucleique. Arch. Biol., 61, 291-144.
105. Kaufman, M.H. (1982) Two examples of monoamniotic monozygotic twinning in diploid parthenogenetic mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 224, 277-282.
106. Kaufman, M.H. and O'Shea, K.S. (1978) Induction of monozygotic twinning in the mouse. Nature, 276, 707-708.
107. Kelly, S.J. (1975) Studies of the potency of early cleavage blastomeres of the mouse. In Balls, M. and Wild, A.E. (eds), The Early Development of Mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 97-105.
108. Kelly, S.J. (1977) Studies of the developmental potential of 4- and 8-cell stage mouse blastomeres. J. Exp. Zool., 200, 365-376.
109. Kochav, S. and Eyal-Giladi, H. (1971) Bilateral symmetry in chick embryo: determination by gravity. Science, 171, 1027-1029.
110. Kruip, T.A.M., Cran, D.G., Van Benenden, T.H. and Dieleman, S.J. (1983) Structural changes in bovine oocytes during final maturation in vivo. Gamete Res., 8, 29-49.
111. Larue, L., Ohsugi, M., Hirchenhain, J. and Kemler, R (1994) E-cadherin null mutant embryos fail to form a trophectoderm epithelium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 8263-8267.
112. Lawrence, P.A. (1992) The Making of a Fly. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
113. Lewis, N.E. and Rossant, J. (1982) Mechanism of size regulation in mouse embryo aggregates. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 72, 169-181.
114. Lewis, W.H. and Hartman, C.G. (1933) Early cleavage stages of the eggs of the monkey (Macaccus rhesus). Cont. Embry. Carnegie Inst., Wash., 24, 189-202.
115. Lewis, W.H. and Wright, E.S. (1935) On the early development of the mouse egg. Cont. Embry. Carnegie Inst. Wash., 25, 113-143.
116. Longo, F. (1987) Fertilization. Chapman and Hall, London.
117. Longo, F. and Chen, D.-Y. (1985) Development of cortical polarity in mouse eggs: involvement of the meiotic apparatus. Dev. Biol., 107, 382-394.
118. Magnuson, T. and Epstein, C.J. (1984) Oligosyndactyly: a lethal mutation in the mouse that results in mitotic arrest very early in development. Cell, 38, 823-833.
119. Mann, J.R. and Lovell-Badge, R.H. (1984) Inviability of parthenogenones is determined by pronuclei, not egg cytoplasm. Nature, 310, 66-67.
120. Markert, C.L. and Petters, R.M. (1978) Manufactured hexaparental mice show that adults are derived from three embryonic cells. Science, 202, 56-58.
121. Maro, B., Johnson, M.H., Pickering, S.J. and Flach, G. (1984) Changes in actin distribution during fertilization of the mouse egg. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 81, 211-237.
122. Maro, B., Howlett, S.K. and Webb, M. (1985) Non-spindle microtubule organizing centers in metaphase II-arrested mouse oocytes. J. Cell Biol., 101, 1665-1672.
123. Maro, B., Johnson, M.H., Webb, M. and Flach, G. (1986) Mechanism of polar body formation in the mouse oocyte: an interaction between the chromosomes, the cytoskeleton, and the plasma membrane. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 92, 11-37.
124. Maruyama, Y.K., Nakaseko, Y. and Yagi, S. (1985) Localization of cytoplasmic determinants responsible for primary mesenchyme formation and gastrulation in the unfertilized egg of the sea urchin Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. J. Exp. Zool., 236, 155-163.
125. McCain, E.R. and McClay, D.R. (1994) The establishment of bilateral symmetry in sea urchin embryos. Development, 120, 395-404.
126. McGaughey, R.W. and Capco, D.G. (1989) Specialized cytoskeletal elements in mammalian eggs: structural and biochemical evidence for their composition. Cell Motil. Cytoskel., 13, 104-111.
127. McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1983) Nuclear transplantation in the mouse embryo by microsurgery and cell fusion. Science, 220, 1300-1302.
128. McLaren, A. (1976) Mammalian Chimaeras. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
129. 12)- normal mosaics. J. Exp. Zool., 157, 273-292.
130. Mintz, B. (1965) Experimental genetic mosaicism in the mouse. In Wolstenholme, G.E.W. and O'Connor, M. (eds), Preimplantation Stages of Pregnancy: A Ciba Foundation Symposium. Churchill, London, pp. 194-207.
131. Mintz, B. (1969) Developmental mechanisms found in allophenic mice with sex chromosomal and pigmentary mosaicism. Birth Defects: Original Article Series 5. In Bergsma, D. and McKusick, V. (eds), First Conference on the Clinical Delineation of Birth Defects. National Foundation, New York, pp. 11-22.
132. Mintz, B. (1971) Gene expression in allophenic mice. In Padykula, H.A. (ed.), Control Mechanisms in the Expression of Cellular Phenotypes: Symposium of the International Society for Cell Biology No. 9, Academic Press, New York, pp. 15-42.
133. Mintz, B. and Silvers, W.K. (1967) "Intrinsic" immunological tolerance in allophenic mice. Science, 158, 1484-1487.
134. Mohr, L.R. and Trounson, A.O. (1982) Comparative ultrastructure of hatched human, mouse and bovine blastocysts. J. Reprod. Fertil., 66, 499-504.
135. Monk, M. and Harper, M. (1978) X-chromosome activity in preimplantation mouse embryos from XX and XO mothers. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 46, 53-64.
136. Moore, N.W., Adams, C.E. and Rowson, L.E.A. (1968) Developmental potential of single blastomeres of the rabbit egg. J. Reprod. Fertil., 17, 527-531.
137. Mullen, R.J. and Whitten, W.K. (1971) Relationship of genotype and degree of chimerism in coat color to sex ratios and gametogenesis in chimeric mice. J. Exp. Zool., 178, 165-176.
138. Mulnard, J.G. (1971) Manipulation of cleaving mammalian embryo with special reference to a time-lapse cinematographic analysis of centrifuged and fused mouse eggs. Adv. Biosci., 6, 255-274.
139. Mulnard, J.G. and Puissant, F. (1984) Development of mouse embryos after ultracentrifugation at the pronuclei stage. Arch. Biol., 97, 301-315.
140. Nagashima, H., Matsui, K., Sawasaki, T. and Kano, Y. (1984) Production of monozygotic twins from microsurgically bisected morulae. J. Reprod. Fertil., 70, 357-362.
141. Nichols, J. and Gardner, R.L. (1984) Heterogeneous differentiation of external cells in individual isolated early mouse inner cell masses in culture. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 80, 225-240.
142. Nicosia, S.V., Wolf, D.P. and Inoue, M. (1977) Cortical granule distribution and cell surface characteristics in mouse eggs. Dev. Biol., 57, 56-74.
143. Niki, Y. (1986) Germline autonomous sterility of P-M dysgenesis hybrids and their application to germline transfer in Drosophila melanogaster. Dev. Biol., 113, 253-258.
144. Nishida, H. (1994) Localization of determinants for formation of the anterior-posterior axis in eggs of the ascidian Halocynthia roretzi. Development, 120, 3093-3104.
145. Odor, D.L. and Blandau, R.L. (1951) Observations on the formation of the second polar body in the rat ovum. Anat. Rec., 110, 329-348.
146. Papaioannou, V.E. and Ebert, K.M. (1988) The preimplantation pig embryo: cell number and allocation to the trophectoderm and inner cell mass of the blastocyst in vivo and in vitro. Development, 102, 793-803.
147. y embryo using mouse chimaeras. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 52, 153-163.
148. Parchment, R.E. (1993) The implications of a unified theory of programmed cell death, polyamines, oxyradicles and histogenesis in the embryo. Int. J. Dev. Biol., 37, 75-83.
149. Paterson, H.F. (1979) In vivo and in vitro studies on the early lethal oligosyndactylism (Os) in the mouse. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 52, 115-125.
150. Pedersen, R.A. (1986) Potency, lineage, and allocation in preimplantation mouse embryos. In Rossant, J. and Pedersen, R.A. (eds), Experimental Approaches to Mammalian Embryonic Development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 3-33.
151. Pedersen, R.A., Wu, K. and Balakier, H. (1986) Origin of the inner cell mass in mouse embryos: cell lineage analysis by microinjection. Dev. Biol., 117, 581-595.
152. Perry, V.H., Henderson, Z. and Linden, R. (1983) Postnatal changes in retinal ganglion cells and optic axon populations in the pigmented rat. J. Cell. Comp. Neurol., 219, 356-368.
153. Petters, R.M. and Markert, C.L. (1980) Production and reproductive performance of hexaparental and octaparental mice. J. Hered., 71, 70-74.
154. Petters, R.M. and Mettus, R.V. (1984) Survival rate to term of chimaeric morulae produced by aggregation of five to nine embryos in the mouse. Theriogenology, 22, 167-174.
155. Phillips, D.M. and Shalgi, R. (1980) Surface architecture of the mouse and hamster zona pellucida and oocyte. J. Ultrastruct. Res., 72, 1-12.
156. Pickering, S.J., Johnson, M.H., Braude, P.R. and Houliston, E. (1988) Cytoskeletal organization in fresh, aged and spontaneously activated human oocytes. Hum. Reprod., 3, 978-989.
157. Pierce, G.B., Lewellyn, A.L. and Parchment, R.E. (1989) Mechanism of programmed cell death in the blastocyst. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86, 3654-3658.
158. Pierce, G.B., Parchment, R.E. and Lewellyn, A.L. (1991) Hydrogen peroxide as a mediator of programmed cell death in the blastocyst. Differentiation, 46, 181-186.
159. Piko, L. and Clegg, K.B. (1982) Quantitative changes in total RNA, total poly (A), and ribosomes in early mouse embryos. Dev. Biol., 89, 362-378.
160. Prather, R.S. and Robl, J.M. (1991) Cloning by nuclear transfer and embryo splitting in laboratory and domestic animals. In Animal Applications of Research in Mammalian Development. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York, pp. 205-232.
161. Price, J., Turner, D. and Cepko, C. (1987) Lineage analysis in the vertebrate nervous system by retrovirus mediated gene transfer. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 84, 156-160.
162. Raff, M.C., Barres, B.A., Burne, J.F., Coles, H.S.R., Ishizaki, Y. and Jacobson, M.D. (1994) Programmed cell death and the control of cell survival. In Dexter, T.M., Raff, M.C.and Wyllie, A.D.H. (eds), Death from Inside-Out: the Role of Apoptosis in Development, Tissue Homeostasis and Malignancy. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B., 345, 265-268.
163. Ram, P.T. and Schultz, R.M. (1993) Reporter gene expression in G2 of the 1-cell mouse embryo. Dev. Biol., 156, 552-556.
164. Rands, G.F. (1985) Cell allocation in half and quadruple-sized preimplantation mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 236, 67-70.
165. Rands, G.F. (1986) Size regulation in the mouse embryo: I. The development of quadruple aggregates. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 94, 139-148.
166. Reed, J.C. (1994) Bcl-2 and the regulation of programmed cell death. J. Cell Biol., 124, 1-6.
167. Rossant, J. (1976) Postimplantation development of blastomeres isolated from 4- and 8-cell mouse eggs. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 36, 283-290.
168. Rossant, J. and Tamura-Lis, W. (1979) Potential of isolated inner cell masses to form trophectoderm derivatives in vivo. Dev. Biol., 70, 255-261.
169. Rowson, L.E.A. and Moor, R.M. (1964) The occurrence and development of identical twins in sheep. Nature, 201, 521-522.
170. Runner, M.N. (1984) New evidence for monozygotic twins in the mouse: twinning initiated in the late blastocyst can account for mirror image asymmetries. Anat. Rec., 209, 399-406.
171. Runnstrom, J. (1975) Integrating factors. In Czihak, G. (ed.), The Sea Urchin Embryo. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 646-670.
172. Sanes, J., Rubenstein, J. and Nicolas, J.-F. (1986) Use of a recombinant retrovirus to study postimplantation cell lineage in mouse embryos. EMBO J., 5, 3133-3142.
173. Santella, L., Alikani, M., Talansky, B.E., Cohen, J. and Dale, B. (1992) Is the human oocyte plasma membrane polarized? Hum. Reprod., 7, 999-1003.
174. Sathananthan, A.H., Trounson, A. and Wood, C. (1986) Atlas of Fine Structure of Human Sperm Penetration, Eggs and Embryos Cultured in Vitro. Praeger Scientific, Philadelphia.
175. Sato, K. and Blandau, R.J. (1979) Second meiotic division and polar body formation in mouse eggs fertilized in vitro. Gamete Res., 2, 283-293.
176. Schatten, G., Simerly, C. and Schatten, H. (1985) Microtubule configurations during fertilization, mitosis and early development in the mouse, and the requirement for microtubule-mediated motility during mammalian fertilization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 82, 4152-4156.
177. Schatten, H., Schatten, G., Mazia, D., Balczon, R. and Simerly, C. (1986) Behavior of centrosomes during fertilization and cell division in mouse oocytes and in sea urchin eggs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83, 105-109.
178. Schatten, G., Simerly, C. and Schatten, H. (1991) Maternal inheritance of centrosomes in mammals? Studies on parthenogenesis and polyspermy in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88, 6785-6789.
179. Schroeder, T.E. (1980a) The jelly canal marker of polarity for sea urchin oocytes, eggs and embryos. Exp. Cell Res., 128, 490-494.
180. Schroeder, T.E. (1980b) Expression of the prefertilization polar axis in the sea urchin egg. Dev. Biol., 79, 428-443.
181. Schroeder, T.E. (1981) Interrelations between the cell surface and the cytoskeleton in cleaving sea urchin eggs. In Poste, G. and Nicholson, G.L. (eds), Cytoskeletal Elements and Plasma Membrane Organization. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 170-216.
182. Seidel, F. (1952) Die Entwicklungspotenzen einer isolierten Blastomere des Zweizellenstadiums im Säugetierei. Naturwissenschaften, 39, 355-356.
183. Seidel, F. (1960) Die Entwicklungsfähigkeiten isolierter Forschungszellen aus dem Ei des Kaninchens Oryctolagus cuniculus. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol., 152, 43-130.
184. Shalgi, R., Phillips, D.M. and Kraicer, P.F. (1978) Observations on the incorporation cone in the rat. Gamete Res., 1, 27-37.
185. Shortman, K., Egerton, M., Spangrude, G.J. and Scollay, R. (1990) The generation and fate of thymocytes. Semin. Immunol., 2, 3-12.
186. Smith, L.J. (1980) Embryonic axis orientation in the mouse and its correlation with blastocysts' relationships to the uterus. Part I. Relationship between 82 hours and 4 1/2 days. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 55, 257-277.
187. Smith, L.J. (1985) Embryonic axis orientation in the mouse and its correlation with blastocysts' relationships to the uterus. Part II. Relationships from 4 1/2 to 9 1/2 days. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 89, 15-35.
188. Spemann, H. (1938) Embryonic Development and Induction. Yale University Press, New Haven.
189. Spindle, A. I. (1978) Trophoblast regeneration by inner cell masses isolated from cultured mouse embryos. J. Exp. Zool., 203, 483-490.
190. St. Johnston, D. and Nüsslein-Volhard, C. (1992) The origin of pattern and polarity in the Drosophila embryo. Cell, 68, 201-219.
191. Strehlow, D. and Gilbert, W. (1993) A fate map for the first cleavages of the zebra fish. Nature, 361, 451-453.
192. Strehlow, D., Heinrich, G. and Gilbert, W. (1994) The fate of blastomeres of the 16-cell zebrafish embryo. Development, 120, 1791-1798.
193. Szollosi, D. (1965) The fate of the sperm middle piece mitochondria in the rat egg. J. Exp. Zool., 159, 367-378.
194. Szollosi, D., Mandlbaum, J., Plachot, M., Salat-Baroux, J. and Cohen, J. (1986) Ultrastructure of the human preovulatory oocyte. J. In Vitro Fertil. Embryo Transfer, 3, 232-242.
195. Talansky, B.E., Malter, H.E. and Cohen, J. (1991) A preferential site for sperm-egg fusion in mammals. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 28, 183-188.
196. Tannahill, D., Bray, S. and Harris, W.A. (1995) A Drosophila E (spl) gene is "neurogenic" in Xenopus: a green fluorescent protein study. Dev. Biol., 168, 694-697.
197. Tarkowski, A.K. (1959a) Experiments on the development of isolated blastomeres of mouse eggs. Nature, 184, 1286-1287.
198. Tarkowski, A.K. (1959b) Experimental studies on regulation in the development of isolated blastomeres of mouse eggs. Acta Theriol., 3, 191-267.
199. Tarkowski, A.K. (1961) Mouse chimaeras developed from fused eggs. Nature, 190, 857-860.
200. Tarkowski, A.K. (1977) In vitro development of haploid mouse embryos produced by bisection of one-cell fertilized eggs. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 38, 187-202.
201. Tarkowski, A.K. and Rossant, J. (1976) Haploid mouse blastocysts developed from bisected zygotes. Nature, 259, 663-665.
202. Tarkowski, A.K. and Wroblewska, J. (1967) Development of blastomeres of mouse eggs isolated at the 4- and 8-cell stage. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 18, 155-180.
203. Taylor, K.D. and Piko, L. (1987) Patterns of mRNA prevalence and expression of B1 and B2 transcripts in early mouse embryos. Development, 101, 877-892.
204. Telford, N.A., Watson, A.J. and Schultz, G.A. (1990) Transition from maternal to embryonic control in early mammalian development: a comparison of several species. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 26, 90-100.
205. Tellez, V., Ahumada, A., Muro, J., Sepulveda, S. and Izquierdo, L. (1988) Centrifugation of 2-cell mouse ova: cytoplasm stratification and recovery. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol., 197, 360-365.
206. Van Blerkom, J. and Bell, H. (1986) Regulation of development in the fully grown mouse oocyte: chromosome-mediated temporal and spatial differentiation of the cytoplasm and plasma membrane. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 93, 213-238.
207. Van Blerkom, J. and Runner, M.N. (1984) Mitochondrial reorganization during resumption of arrested meiosis in the mouse oocyte. Am J. Anat., 171, 335-355.
208. Van Valen, P. (1966) Oligosyndactylism, and early embryonic lethal in the mouse. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 15, 119-124.
209. Waksmundzka, M., Krysiak, E., Karasiewicz, J., Czolowska, R. and Tarkowski, A.K. (1984) Autonomous cortical activity in mouse eggs controlled by a cytoplasmic clock. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 79, 77-96.
210. Wan, Y.-J., Wu, T.-C. and Damjanov, I. (1982) Twinning and conjoined placentation in the mouse. J. Exp. Zool., 221, 81-86.
211. Wassarman, P.M., Ukena, T.E., Josefowicz, W.J. and Karnovsky, M.J. (1977a) Asymmetrical distribution of microvilli in cytochalasin B-induced pseudocleavage of mouse oocytes, Nature, 265, 742-744.
212. Wassarman, P.M., Ukena, T.E., Josefowicz, W.J., Letourneau, G.E. and Karnovsky, M.J. (1977b) Cytochalasin B-induced pseudocleavage of mouse ooctes in vitro. II. Studies of the mechanism and morphological consequences of pseudocleavage. J. Cell Sci., 26, 323-337.
213. West, J.D., Bücher, T., Linke, I.M. and Dünnwald, M. (1984) Investigation of variability among mouse aggregation chimaeras and X-chromosome inactivation mosaics. J. Embryol, Exp. Morphol., 84, 309-329.
214. West, J.D., Leask, R. and Green, J.F. (1986) Quantitation of the transition from oocyte-coded to embryo-coded glucose phosphate isomerase in mouse embryos. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 97, 225-237.
215. Westerfield, M., Wegner, J., Jegalian, B.G., De Robertis, E.M. and Puschel, A.W. (1992) Specific activation of mammalian Hox promoter in mosaic transgenic zebrafish. Genes Dev., 6, 591-598.
216. Wilkins, A.S. (1993) Genetic Analysis of Animal Development, 2nd edn. Wiley-Liss, New York.
217. Willadsen, S.M. (1981) The developmental capacity of blastomeres from 4- and 8-cell sheep embryos. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol., 65, 165-172.
218. Wilson, E.B. (1928) The Cell in Development and Heredity, 3rd edn. Macmillan, New York.
219. Wilson, I.B. and Smith, M.S.R. (1970) Primary trophoblastic invasion at the time of nidation. In Hubinont, P.O., Leroy, F., Robyn, C. and Leleux, P. (eds), Ovo-Implantation, Human Gonadotropins and Prolactin. Karger, Basel, pp. 1-7.
220. Winkel, G.K. and Pedersen, R.A. (1988) Fate of the inner cell mass in mouse embryos as studied by microinjection of lineage tracers. Dev. Biol., 127, 143-156.
221. Wolfe, D.E. and Ziomek, C. A. (1983) Regionalization and lateral diffusion of membrane proteins in unfertilized and fertilized mouse eggs. J. Cell Biol., 96, 1786-1790.
222. Wolstenholme, G.E.W. and O'Connor, M. (eds) (1965) Preimplantation Stages of Pregnancy: A Ciba Foundation Symposium. Churchill, London.
223. Wyllie, A.H., Kerr, J.F.R. and Currie, A.R. (1980) Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. Int. Rev. Cytol., 68, 251-306.
224. Yuge, M., Kobayakawa, Y., Fujisue, M. and Yamana, K. (1990) A cytoplasmic determinant for dorsal axis formation in an early embryo of Xenopus laevis. Development, 110, 1051-1056.
225. Zamboni, L. (1970) Ultrastructure of mammalian oocytes and ova. Biol. Reprod. Suppl., 2, 44-63.
226. Zhang, Y.-Z., Naleway, J.J., Larison, K.D., Huang, Z.J. and Haugland, R.P. (1991) Detecting LacZ gene expression in living cells with new lipophilic, fluorogenic B-galactosidase substrates. FASEB J., 5, 3108-3113.