The selection, testing and application of terrestrial insects as bioindicators

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 181-201

  McGeoch, Melodie A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Biodiversity indicators; Bioindicators; Ecological indicators; Environmental indicators; Monitoring; Terrestrial insects

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; DECISION MAKING; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; INSECT; REVIEW;

EID: 0031947546     PISSN: 00063231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S000632319700515X     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. ACKERY, P. R. & VANE-WRIGHT, R. I. (1984). Milkweed Butterflies: their Cladistics and Biology. Cornell, London.
2. ALLABY, M. (1992). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
3. BALMFORD, A., GREEN, M. J. B. & MURRAY, M. G. (1996a). Using higher-taxon richness as a surrogate for species richness. I. Regional tests. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263, 1267-1274.
4. BALMFORD, A., JAYASURIYA, A. H. M. & GREEN, M. J. B. (1996b). Using higher-taxon richness as a surrogate for species richness. II Local applications. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263, 1571-1575.
5. BECCALONI, G. W. & GASTON, K. J. (1995). Predicting species richness of neotropical forest butterflies - Ithomiinae (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) as indicators. Biological Conservation 71, 77-86.
6. BLOCK, W. M., BRENNAN, L. A. & GUTIERREZ, R. J. (1986). The use of guilds and guild-indicator species for assessing habitat suitability. In Wildlife 2000: Modelling Habitat Relationships of Terrestrial Vertebrates (ed. J. Verner, M. L. Morrison and C. J. Ralph), pp. 109-113. University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin.
7. BROWN, K. S. (1991). Conservation of neotropical environments: insects as indicators. In The Conservation of Insects and their Habitats (ed. N. M. Collins and J. A. Thomas), pp. 349-404. Academic Press, London.
8. BUTTERFIELD, J., LUFF, M. L., BAINES, M. & EYRE, M. D. (1995). Carabid beetle communities as indicators of conservation potential in upland forests. Forest Ecology & Management 79, 63-77.
9. CARPENTER, S. R., FROST, T. M., KITCHELL, J. F. & KRATZ, T. K. (1993). Species dynamics and global environmental change: a perspective from ecosystem experiments. In Biotic Interactions and Global Change (ed. P. M. Kareiva, J. G. Kingsolver and R. B. Huey), pp. 267-279. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland.
10. CAUGHLEY, G. & GUNN, A. (1996). Conservation Biology in Theory and Practice. Blackwell Science, Cambridge.
11. CHESSMAN, B. C. (1995). Rapid assessment of rivers using macroinvertebrates: a procedure based on habitat-specific sampling, family level identification and a biotic index. Australian Journal of Ecology 20, 122-129.
12. CHURCH, R. L., STOMS, D. M. & DAVIS, F. W. (1996). Reserve selection as a maximal covering location problem. Biological Conservation 76, 105-112.
13. CLARKE, K. R. & WARWICK, R. M. (1994). Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation. Natural Environmental Research Council, U.K.
14. COLLINS, N. M. & MORRIS, M. G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: the IUCM Red Data Book. IUCN, Gland.
15. COOPE, G. R. (1979). Late Cenozoic fossil Coleoptera: evolution, biogeography, and ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10, 247-267.
16. COOPE, G. R. & LEHMDAHL, G. (1996). Validations for the use of beetle remains as reliable indicators of Quaternary climates: a reply to the criticisms by Johan Andersen. Journal of Biogeography 23, 115-119.
17. COUSINS, S. H. (1991). Species diversity measurement: choosing the right index. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 6, 190-192.
18. CURNUTT, J., LOCKWOOD, J., LUH, H. K., NOTT, P. & RUSSELL, G. (1994). Hotspots and species diversity. Nature 367, 326-327.
19. CURRIE, D. J. (1991). Energy and large-scale patterns of animal and plant species richness. The American Naturalist 137, 27-49.
20. DALLINGER, R., BERGER, B. & BIRKEL, S. (1992). Terrestrial isopods: useful biological indicators of urban metal pollution. Oecologia 89, 32-41.
21. DAVIES, M. T., DAVIDSON, A. W. & PORT, G. R. (1992). Fluoride loading of larvae of pine sawfly from a polluted site. Journal of Applied Ecology 29, 63-69.
22. DI CASTRI, F., ROBERTSON-VERNHES, J. & YOUNES, T. (1992). A proposal for an international network on inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity. Biology International, Special Issue 27, 1-25.
23. DUFRÊNE, M. & LEGENDRE, P. (1997). Species assemblages and indicator species: the need for a flexible asymmetrical aproach. Ecological Monographs 67, 345-366.
24. ERHARDT, A. (1985). Diurnal Lepidoptera: sensitive indicators of cultivated and abandoned grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 849-862.
25. ERHARDT, A. & THOMAS, J. A. (1991). Lepidoptera as indicators of change in semi-natural grasslands of lowland and upland Europe. In The Conservation of Insects and their Habitats (ed. N. M. Collins and J. A. Thomas), pp. 213-236. Academic Press, London.
26. FAITH, D. P. & WALKER, P. A. (1996). How do indicator groups provide information about the relative biodiversity of different sets of areas?: on hotspots, complementarity and pattern-based approaches. Biodiversity Letters 3, 18-25.
27. FLATHER, C. H., WILSON, K. R., DEAN, D. J. & MCCOMB, W. C. (1997). Identifying gaps in conservation networks: of indicators and uncertainty in geographic-based analyses. Ecological Applications 7, 531-542.
28. GASTON, K. J. ( 1996a). Spatial covariance in the species richness of higher taxa. In Aspects of the Genesis and Maintenance of Biological Diversity (ed. M. E. Hochberg, J. Clobert and R. Barbault), pp. 221-242. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
29. GASTON, K. J. (1996b). Biodiversity - congruence. Progress in Physical Geography 20, 105-112.
30. GASTON, K. J. (1996c). Species richness: measure and measurement. In Biodiversity A Biology of Numbers and Difference (ed. K. J. Gaston), pp. 77-113. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
31. GASTON, K. J. & BLACKBURN, T. M. (1995). Mapping biodiversity using surrogates for species richness: macro-scales and New World birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 262, 335-341.
32. GASTON, K. J. & WILLIAMS, P. H. (1993). Mapping the world's species - the higher taxon approach. Biodiversity Letters 1, 2-8.
33. GLOWKA, L., BURNHENNE-GUILMIN, F., SYNGE, H., MCNEELY, J. A. & GÜNDLING, L. (1994). A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity. IUCN, Gland.
34. GOLDSTEIN, P. Z. (1997). How many things are there? a reply to Oliver and Beattie, Beattie and Oliver, Oliver and Beattie and Oliver and Beattie. Conservation Biology 11, 571-574.
35. GRAHAM, R. W. & GRIMM, E. C. (1990). Effects of global climate change on the patterns of terrestrial biological communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5, 289-292.
36. GREEN, R. H. (1979). Sampling Design and Statistical Methods for Environmental Biologists. Wiley, New York.
37. GREEN, R. H. (1993). Application of repeated-measures designs in environmental impact and monitoring studies. Australian Journal of Ecology 18, 81-98.
38. HAILA, Y. & AUSTIN, C. R. (1996). Survey research in conservation biology. Ecography 19, 323-331.
39. HAMMOND, P. M. (1994). Practical approaches to the estimation of the extent of biodiversity in speciose groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 345, 119-136.
40. HAWKSWORTH, D. L. & RITCHIE, J. M. (1993). Biodiversity and Systematic Priorities: Microorganisms and Invertebrates. CAB International, Surray.
41. HELLAWELL, J. M. (1986). Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and Environmental Management. Elsevier, London.
42. HELLAWELL, J. M. (1991). Development of a rationale for monitoring. In Monitoring for Conservation and Ecology (ed. Goldsmith, F. B.), pp. 1-14. Chapman & Hall, London.
43. HINDS, W. T. (1984). Towards monitoring of long-term trends in terrestrial ecosystems. Environmental Conservation 11, 11-18.
44. HOLLOWAY, J. D. (1980). Insect surveys - an approach to environmental monitoring. Atti XII Congr. Naz. Ital. Entomol. 1980, 239-261.
45. HOLLOWAY, J. D. (1990). Norfolk Island and biogeography for the nineties: ideas from a dot on the map. Journal of Biogeography 17, 113-115.
46. HOLLOWAY, J. D. & BARLOW, H. (1992). Potential for loss of biodiversity in Malaysia, illustrated by the moth fauna. In Pest Management and the Environment in the Year 2000 (ed. Barlow, H. S. and A. Aziz Kadir), pp. 293-311. CAB International, Wallingford.
47. HOLLOWAY, J. D. & STORK, N. E. (1991). The dimensions of biodiversity: the use of invertebrates as indicators of human impact. In The Biodiversity of Micro-Organisms and Invertebrates: Its Role in Sustainable Agriculture. (ed. D. L. Hawksworth), pp. 37-61. CAB International, London.
48. HURLBERT, S. J. (1984). Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological Monographs 54, 187-211.
49. HUMPHRIES, C. J. & VANE-WRIGHT, R. I. (1992). Systematic Evaluation of the Global Network of Protected Areas: Objectives, Alternatives, Prospects and Proposals. Abstract and draft papers presented at IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, February 1992.
50. HUMPHRIES, C. J., WILLIAMS, P. H. & VANE-WRIGHT, R. I. (1995). Measuring biodiversity value for conservation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 26, 93-111.
51. IVES, A. R. & GILCHRIST, G. (1993). Climate change and ecological interactions. In Biotic Interactions and Global Change (ed. P. M. Kareiva, J. G. Kingsolver and R. B. Huey), pp. 120-146. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland.
52. JENKINS, D. W. (1971). Global biological monitoring. In Man's Impact on Terrestrial and Oceanic Ecosystems (ed. W. H. Matthews, F. E. Smith and E. D. Goldberg), pp. 351-370. The Colonial Press, U.S.A.
53. JONES, K. C. (1987). Honey as an indicator of heavy metal pollution. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 33, 179-190.
54. KIRKPATRICK, J. B. (1983). An iterative method for establishing priorities for the selection of nature reserves: an example from Tasmania. Biological Conservation 25, 127-134.
55. KITCHING, I. J. (1996). Identifying complementary areas for conservation in Thailand: an example using owls, hawkmoths and tiger beetles. Biodiversity and Conservation 5, 51-66.
56. KOLKWITZ, R. & MARSSON, M. (1908). Okologie der pflanzlichen saprobien. Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 26, 505-519.
57. KREMEN, C. (1992). Assessing the indicator properties of species assemblages for natural areas monitoring. Ecological Applications 2, 203-217.
58. KREMEN, C. (1994). Biological inventory using target taxa: a case study of the butterflies of Madagascar. Ecological Applications 4, 407-422.
59. KREMEN, C., COLWELL, R. K., ERWIN, T. L., MURPHY, D. D., Noss, R. F. & SANJAYAN, M. A. (1993). Terrestrial arthropod assemblages: their use in conservation planning. Conservation Biology 7, 796-808.
60. KREMEN, C., MERENLANDER, A. M. & MURPHY, D. D. (1994). Ecological monitoring: a vital need for integrated conservation and development programs in the tropics. Conservation Biology 8, 388-397.
61. KROUPA, M., SPITZER, K. & NOVAK, I. (1990). The heavy metal content in melanic and typical forms of Biston betularia (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) and its bioindicator significance. Acta Entomologica Bohemoslovaca 87, 249-252.
62. LAMBECK, R. J. (1997). Focal species: a multi-species umbrella for nature conservation. Conservation Biology 11, 849-856.
63. LANCIA, R. A., ADAMS, D. A. & LUNK, E. M. (1986). Temporal and spatial aspects of species-habitat models. In Wildlife 2000: Modelling Habitat Relationships of Terrestrial Vertebrates (ed. J. Verner, M. L. Morrison and C. J. Ralph), pp. 65-69. University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin.
64. LANDRES, P. B., VERNER, J. & THOMAS, J. W. (1988). Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: a critique. Conservation Biology 2, 316-329.
65. LEES, D. C. (1996). The Perinét effect? Diversity gradients in an adaptive radiation of Madagascan butterflies (Satyrinae: Mycalesina) contrasted with other species-rich rainforest taxa. In Biogeographie de Madagascar (ed. W. R. Lourenço), pp. 479-490. Paris, Orstom.
66. LENHARDT, S. C. & WITTER, J. A. (1977). Insects as biological indicators of environmental change. ESA Bulletin 23, 191-192.
67. LEVIN, S. A. (1992). The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73, 1943-1967.
68. LUFF, M. L. & WOIWOD, I. P. (1995). Insects as indicators of land-use change: a European perspective, focusing on moths and ground beetles. In Insects in a Changing Environment (ed. R. Harrington and N. E. Stork), pp. 400-424. Academic Press, London.
69. MAELFAIT J. & DESENDER, K. (1990). Possibilities of short-term carabid sampling for site assessment studies. In The Role of Ground Beetles in Ecological and Environmental Studies (ed. N. E. Stork) pp. 217-225. Intercept, England.
70. MAELFAIT, J., DESENDER, K. & BAERT, L. (1990). Carabids as ecological indicators for dune management evaluation. In The Role of Ground Beetles in Ecological and Environmental Studies (ed. N. E. Stork), pp. 331-333. Intercept, England.
71. MAJER, J. D. (1983). Bio-indicators of minesite rehabilitation, land use and land conservation. Environmental Management 7, 375-383.
72. MARGULES, C. R. & AUSTIN, M. P. (eds.) (1991). Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data Analysis. CSIRO, Australia.
73. MARGULES, C. R. & AUSTIN, M. P. (1994). Biological models for monitoring species decline: the construction and use of data bases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 345, 69-75.
74. MARGULES, C. R., CRESSWELL, I. D. & NICHOLLS, A. O. (1994). A scientific basis for establishing networks of protected areas. In Systematics and Conservation Evaluation (ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries and R. I. Vane-Wright), pp. 327-350. Claredon Press, Oxford.
75. MARGULES, C. R., NICHOLLS, A. O., PRESSEY, R. L. (1988). Selecting networks of reserves to maximize biological diversity Biological Conservation 43, 63-76.
76. MARGULES, C. R. & REDHEAD, T. D. (eds.) (1995). BioRap: Rapid Assessment of Biodiversity Priority Areas. Guidelines for using the BioRap Methodology and Tools. CSIRO, Worldbank, Australia.
77. MAY, R. M. (1993). The effects of spatial scale on ecological questions and answers. In Large-Scale Ecology and Conservation Biology (ed. P. J. Edwards, R. M. May and N. R. Webb), pp. 1-18. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
78. MEFFE, G. K. & CARROLL, C. R. (1994). Principles of Conservation Biology. Sinauer, Sunderland.
79. MITTERMEIER, R. A. (1988). Primate diversity and the tropical forest: case studies from Brazil and Madagascar and the importance of the megadiversity countries. In Biodiversity (ed. E. O. Wilson), pp. 145-154. National Academy Press, Washington.
80. MOSSAKOWSKI, D., FRAMES, H. & BARO, A. (1990). Carabid beetles as indicators of habitat destruction caused by military tanks. In The Role of Ground Beetles in Ecological and Environmental Studies (ed. N. E. Stork), pp. 237-243. Intercept, England.
81. MURPHY, D. D. (1990). Conservation biology and scientific method. Conservation Biology 4, 203-204.
82. MURPHY, D. D. (1992). Integrating scientific method with habitat conservation planning - reserve design for northern spotted owls. Ecological Applications 2, 3-17.
83. MURPHY, D. D. & WILCOX, B. A. (1986). Butterfly diversity in natural habitat fragments: a test of the validity of vertebrate-based management. In Wildlife 2000: Modelling Habitat Relationships of Terrestrial Vertebrates (ed. J. Verner, M. L. Morrison and C. J. Ralph), pp. 287-292. University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin.
84. MURTAUGH, P. A. (1996). The statistical evaluation of ecological indicators. Ecological Applications 6, 132-139.
85. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (1988). Earth System Science, NASA, Washington, D.C.
86. NEW, T. R. (1995). Introduction to Invertebrate Conservation Biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
87. NICHOLLS, A. O. & MARGULES, C. R. (1993). An upgraded reserve selection algorithm. Biological Conservation 64, 165-169.
88. NOBLE, I. & NORTON, G. (1991). Economic aspects of monitoring for National Park management. In Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data Analysis (ed. C. R. Margules & M. P. Austin), pp. 69-73. CSIRO, Australia.
89. NOSS, R. F. (1990). Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conservation Biology 4, 355-364.
90. OLIVER, I. & BEATTIE, A. J. (1996). Designing a cost-effective invertebrate survey: a test of methods for rapid assessment of biodiversity. Ecological Applications 6, 594-607.
91. OLIVER, I. & BEATTIE, A. J. (1997). Future taxonomic partnerships: reply to Goldstein. Conservation Biology 11, 575-576.
92. PAOLETTI, M. G. & BRESSAN, M. (1996). Soil invertebrates as bioindicators of human disturbance. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 15, 21-62.
93. PAOLETTI, M. G., SCHWEIGL, U. & FAVRETTO, M. R. (1995). Soil macroinvertebrates, heavy metals and organochlorines in low and high input apple orchards and a coppiced woodland. Pedobiologia 39, 20-33.
94. PEARSON, D. L. (1994). Selecting indicator taxa for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 345, 75-79.
95. PEARSON, D. L. & CASSOLA, F. (1992). World-wide species richness patterns of tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae): indicator taxon for biodiversity and conservation studies. Conservation Biology 6, 376-391.
96. PRANCE, G. T. (1994). A comparison of the efficacy of higher taxa and species numbers in the assessment of biodiversity in the Neotropics. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 345, 89-99.
97. PRENDERGAST, J. R. (1997). Species richness covariance in higher taxa: empirical tests of the biodiversity indicator concept. Ecography 20, 210-216.
98. PRENDERGAST, J. R., QUINN, R. M., LAWTON, J. H., EVERSHAM, B. C. & GIBBONS, D. W. (1993). Rare species, the coincidence of diversity hotspots and conservation strategies. Nature 365, 335-337.
99. PRESSEY, R. L. (1994). Ad hoc reservations: forward or backward steps in developing representative reserve areas? Conservation Biology 8, 662-668.
100. PRESSEY, R. L. & NICHOLLS, A. O. (1989). Efficiency in conservation evaluation: scoring versus iterative approaches. Biological Conservation 50, 199-218.
101. PRESSEY, R. L., HUMPHRIES, C. J., MARGULES, C. R., VANE-WRIGHT, R. I. & WILLIAMS, P. H. (1993). Beyond opportunism: key principles for systematic reserve selection. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8, 124-128.
102. REID, W. V., MCNEELY, J. A., TUNSTALL, D. B., BRYANT, D. A. & WINOGRAD, M. (1993). Biodiversity Indicators for Policy Makers. WRI/IUCN/UNEP, Washington.
103. ROOT, T. L. & SCHNEIDER, S. H. (1993). Can large-scale climatic models be linked with multiscale ecological studies? Conservation Biology 7, 256-270.
104. ROSENBERG, D. M., BANKS, H. V. & LEHMKUHL, D. M. (1986). Importance of insects in environmental impact assessment. Environmental Management 10, 773-783.
105. ROSENBERG, D. M. & RESH, V. (1993). Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Chapman & Hall, New York.
106. RYKKEN, J. J., CAPEN, D. E. & MAHABIR, S. P. (1997). Ground beetles as indicators of land type diversity in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Conservation Biology 11, 522-530.
107. RYTI, R. T. (1992). Effect of the focal taxon on the selection of nature reserves. Ecological Applications 2, 404-410.
108. SAMWAYS, M. J. & STEYTLER, N. S. (1996). Dragonfly (Odonata) distribution patterns in urban and forest landscapes, and recommendations for riparian management. Biological Conservation 78, 279-288.
109. SAVAGE, A. A. (1982). Use of water boatman (Corixidae) in the classification of lakes. Biological Conservation 23, 55-70.
110. SCHEINER, S. M. & GUREVITCH, J. (1993). Design and Analysis of Ecological Experiments. Chapman & Hall, New York.
111. SCHINDLER, D. W. (1990). Experimental perturbations of whole lakes as tests of hypotheses concerning ecosystem structure and function. Oikos 57, 25-41.
112. SOULÉ, M. E. & KOHM, K. A. (1989). Research Priorities for Conservation Biology. Island Press, Washington.
113. SPELLERBERG, I. F. (1991). Monitoring Ecological Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
114. SPELLERBERG, I. F. (1992). Evaluation and Assessment for Conservation, Ecological Guidelines for Determining Priorities for Nature Areas. Chapman & Hall, London.
115. STEELE, J. H. (1991). Can ecological theory cross the land-sea boundary? Journal of Theoretical Biology 153, 425-436.
116. STEENKAMP, H. E. & CHOWN, S. L. (1996). Influence of dense stands of an exotic tree, Prosopis glandulosa Benson, on a savanna dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) assemblage in southern Africa. Biological Conservation 78, 305-311.
117. STEWART-OATEN, A. (1993). Evidence and statistical summaries in environmental assessment. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8, 156-158.
118. STORK, N. E. (1994). Inventories of biodiversity: more than a question of numbers. In Systematics and Conservation Evaluation. (ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries and R. I. Vane-Wright), pp. 81-100. Claredon Press, Oxford.
119. STORK, N. E. & EGGLETON, P. (1992). Invertebrates as determinants and indicators of soil quality. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 7, 38-47.
120. STORK, N. E. & SAMWAYS, M. J. (1995). Inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity. In Global Biodiversity Assessment (ed. V. H. Heywood), pp. 453-543. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
121. SUGDEN, A. M. (1992). Using biotic interactions to forecast the consequences of global climate change. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7, 35-36.
122. TREWEEK, J. (1996). Ecology and environmental impact assessment. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 191-199.
123. TURNER, J. R., GATEHOUSE, C. M. & COREY, C. A. (1987). Does solar energy control organic diversity? Butterflies, moths and the British climate. Oikos 48, 195-205.
124. UNDERWOOD, A. J. (1989). The analysis of stress in natural populations. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 37, 51-78.
125. UNDERWOOD, A. J. (1991). Beyond BACI: experimental designs for detecting human environmental impacts on temporal variations in natural populations. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42, 569-587.
126. UNDERWOOD, A. J. (1993). The mechanics of spatially replicated sampling programmes to detect environmental impacts in a variable world. Australian Journal of Ecology 18, 99-116.
127. UNDERWOOD, A. J. & PETERSON, C. H. (1988). Towards an ecological framework for investigating pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series 46, 227-234.
128. VANE-WRIGHT, R. I. (1996). Identifying priorities for the conservation of biodiversity: systematic biological criteria within a socio-political framework. In Biodiversity A Biology of Numbers and Difference (ed. K. J. Gaston), pp. 309-344. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
129. VANE-WRIGHT, R. I., HUMPHRIES, C. J. & WILLIAMS, P. H. (1991). What to protect? - Systematics and the agony of choice. Biological Conservation 55, 235-254.
130. VANE-WRIGHT, R. I., SMITH, C. R. & KITCHING, I. J. (1994). Systematic assessment of taxic diversity by summation. In Systematics and Conservation Evaluation (ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries and R. I. Vane-Wright), pp. 309-326. Claredon Press, Oxford.
131. WEAVER, J. C. (1995). Indicator species and scale of observation. Conservation Biology 9, 939-942.
132. WIENS, J. A (1989). Spatial scaling in ecology. Functional Ecology 3, 385-397.
133. WILHM, J. L. & DORRIS, T. C. (1968). Biological parameters for water quality criteria. BioScience 8, 477-481.
134. WILLIAMS, P. H. (1996). Measuring biodiversity value. World Conservation, 1, 12-14.
135. WILLIAMS, P. H. & GASTON, K. J. (1994). Measuring more of biodiversity: can higher taxon richness predict wholesale species richness? Biological Conservation 67, 211-217.
136. WILLIAMS, P. H., GASTON, K. J. & HUMPHRIES, C. J. (1997). Mapping biodiversity value worldwide - combining higher taxon richness from different groups. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 264, 141-148.
137. WINNER, R. W., BOESEL, M. W., FARRELL, M. P. (1980). Insect community structure as an index of heavy-metal pollution in lotic ecosystems. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 37, 647-655.
138. WOIWOD, I. P. & THOMAS, J. A. (1993). The ecology of butterflies and moths at the landscape scale. In Landscape Ecology in Britain (ed. R. Hannes-Young and R. G. H. Bunce), pp. 76-92. University of Nottingham, Nottingham.
139. WOODWARD, F. I. (1987). Climate and Plant Distribution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
140. WORTHEN, W. B., MAYROSE, S. & WILSON, R. G. (1994). Complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors: effects on mycophagous fly communities. Oikos 69, 277-286.
141. ZONNEVELD, I. S. (1983). Principles of bio-indication. Environmental Monitoring & Assessment 3, 207-217.