New concepts and therapies of adult respiratory distress syndrome

Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia

Volumn 11, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 771-786

  Peruzzi, William T ^a   Franklin, Mark L ^b   Shapiro, Barry A ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NORTHWESTERN MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; CYTOKINE; ENDOTOXIN; GLUTATHIONE; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; LUNG SURFACTANT; MAGNESIUM; NITRIC OXIDE; SELENIUM; STEROID; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ACUTE RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BREATHING MECHANICS; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; EXTRACORPOREAL OXYGENATION; HUMAN; HYPOXIC LUNG VASOCONSTRICTION; INFLAMMATION; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LUNG EDEMA; LUNG INFILTRATE; LUNG INJURY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; NONHUMAN; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; RAT; REVIEW; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY;

EID: 0030886680     PISSN: 10530770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1053-0770(97)90175-0     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, et al: Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 60:233-239, 1967
2. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al: The American-European consensus conference on ARDS: Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:818-824, 1994
3. Petty TL: The acute respiratory distress syndrome: Historical perspective. Chest 105:44-47s, 1994
4. Solliday NH, Shapiro BA, Gracey DR: Adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 69:207-213, 1976
5. Shapiro BA, Cane RD: Metabolic malfunction of lung: Noncardiogenic edema and adult respiratory distress syndrome. Surg Ann 13:271-298, 1981
6. Livingston DH, Mosenthal AC, Deitch EA: Sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome: A clinical-mechanistic overview. New Horizons 3:257-266, 1995
7. American College of Chest Physicians: Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Chest 101:1644-1655, 1992
8. Abraham E (ed): Sepsis: Cellular and physiologic mechanisms. New Horizons 1:1-159, 1993
9. Barton R, Cerra FB: The hypermetabolism: Multiple organ failure syndrome. Chest 96:1153-1160, 1989
10. MacNee W, Selby C: Neutrophil traffic in the lungs: Role of haemodynamics, cell adhesion and deformability. Thorax 48:79-88, 1993
11. Springer SA: Adhesion receptor of the immune system. Nature 346:425-434, 1990
12. Smith CW: Molecular determinants of neutrophil adhesion. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2:487-489, 1990
13. Downey GP, Doherty DE, Schwab B, et al: Retention of leukocytes in capillaries: Role of cell size and deformability. J Appl Physiol 69:1767-1778, 1988
14. Kelly J: Cytokines of the lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:765-788, 1990
15. Redl H, Schlag G, Behrami S, et al: Plasma neutrophil activating peptide-1/interleukin-8 and neutrophil elastase in a primate bacteremia model. J Infect Dis 164:383-388, 1991
16. Hesse DG, Tracey KJ, Fong Y, et al: Cytokine appearance in human endotoxemia and primate bacteremia. Surg Gynecol Obstet 166:147-153, 1988
17. Cannon JG, Tompluns RG, Gelfand JA, et al: Circulating interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor in septic shock and experimental endotoxin fever. J Infect Dis 161:79-84, 1990
18. St. John RC, Dorinsky PM: Immunologic therapy for ARDS, septic shock, and multiple-organ failure. Chest 103:932-943, 1993
19. Meduri GU, Headley S, Kohler G, et al: Persistent elevation of inflammatory cytokines predicts a poor outcome in ARDS: Plasma IL-1β and IL-6 levels are consistent and efficient predictors of outcome overtime. Chest 107:1062-1073, 1995
20. Hasegawa N, Husari AW, Hart WT, et al: Role of the coagulation system in ARDS. Chest 105:268-277, 1994
21. Bizios R, Lai L, Fenton JW, et al: Thrombin-induced chemotaxis and aggregation of neutrophils. J Cell Physiol 128:485-490, 1986
22. Williams TJ, Hellewell PG: Endothelial cell biology: Adhesion molecules involved in the microvascular inflammatory response. Am Rev Respir Dis 148s:45-50, 1992
23. Bone RC: Modulation of coagulation: A critical appraisal of their role in sepsis. Arch Intern Med 19:61-76, 1992
24. Modig J: Posttraumatic pulmonary microembolism. Ann Clin Res 9:164-172, 1977
25. Saldeen T: Clotting, microembolism, and inhibition of fibrinolysis in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Surg Clin North Am 63:285-304, 1983
26. Edelson JD: Epithelial dysfunction in acute lung injury. New Horizons 3:229-239, 1995
27. Lewis JF, Jobe AH: Surfactant and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 147:218-233, 1993
28. Sherman MP, Ganz T: Host defense in pulmonary alveoli. Annu Rev Physiol 54:331-350, 1992
29. Fulmer JD: ACCP-NHLBI National Conference on Oxygen Therapy. Chest 86:234-247, 1984
30. Goode HF, Webster NR: Free radicals and trace element metabolism in sepsis and injury. Br J Intensive Care 2:312-322, 1992
31. Katzenstein AA, Bloor CM, Leibow AA: Diffuse alveolar damage: The role of oxygen, shock, and related factors. A review. Am J Pathol 85:210-221, 1976
32. Hackney JD, Evans MJ, Spier CE, et al: Effect of high concentrations of oxygen on reparative regeneration of damaged alveolar epithelium in mice. Exp Mol Pathol 34:338-344, 1981
33. Griffith DE, Garcia JB, James JL, et al: Hyperoxic exposure in humans: Effects of 50 percent oxygen on alveolar macrophage leukotriene B4 synthesis. Chest 101:392-397, 1992
34. Redl H, Gasser H, Schlag G: Involvement of oxygen radicals in shock related cell injury. Br Med Bull 49:556-565, 1993
35. Carlsson LM, Jonsson J, Edlund, et al: Mice lacking extracellular superoxide dismutase are more sensitive to hyperoxia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:6264-6268, 1995
36. Hamburg DC, Tonoki H, Weltz SE, et al: Endotoxin induces glutathione reductase activity in lungs of mice. Pediatr Res 35:311-315, 1994
37. Chang LY, Kang BM, Slot JW, et al: Immunocytochemical localization of the sites of superoxide dismutase induction by hyperoxia in rat lungs. Lab Invest 73:29-39, 1995
38. Goode HF, Webster NR: Free radicals and antioxidants in sepsis. Crit Care Med 21:1770-1776, 1993
39. Tanswell AK, Freeman BA: Antioxidant therapy in critical care medicine. New Horizons 3:330-341, 1995
40. Parker JC, Hernandez LA, Peevy KJ: Mechanisms of ventilator-induced lung injury. Crit Care Med 21:131-143, 1993
41. Demling RH: Adult respiratory distress syndrome: Current concepts. New Horizons 1:388-401, 1993
42. Zapol WM: Volutrauma and the intravenous oxygenator in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 77:847-849, 1992
43. Tsuno K, Miura K, Takeya M, et al: Histopathologic pulmonary changes from mechanical ventilation at high peak airway pressures. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:1115-1120, 1991
44. Hernandez LA, Peevy KJ, Moise AA, et al: Chest wall restriction limits high airway pressure-induced lung injury in young rabbits. J Appl Physiol 66:2364-2368, 1989
45. Dreyfuss D, Soler P, Basset G, et al: High inflation pressure pulmonary edema: Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis 137:1159-1164, 1988
46. Christman JW, Holden EP, Blackwell TS: Strategies for blocking the systemic effects of cytokines in the sepsis syndrome. Crit Care Med 23:955-964, 1995
47. Bone RC, Balk RA, Fein AM, et al: A second large controlled clinical study of E5, a monoclonal antibody to endotoxin: Results of a prospective, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med 23:994-1005, 1995
48. Ziegler EJ, Fisher CJ Jr, Sprung CL, et al: Treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin. N Engl J Med 324:429-436, 1991
49. St. John RC, Dorinsky PM: Immunologic therapy for ARDS, septic shock, and multiple-organ failure. Chest 103:932-943, 1993
50. Godin PJ, Buchman TG: Uncoupling of biological oscillators: A complementary hypothesis concerning the pathogenesis of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Crit Care Med 24:1107-1116, 1996
51. Arend WP, Welgus HG, Thompson RC, et al: Biological properties of recombinant human monocyte-derived interleukin 1 receptor agonist. J Clin Invest 85:1694-1697, 1990
52. Bernard GR, Reines HD, Nolushko PV, et al: Prostacyclin and thromboxane A2 formation is increased in human sepsis syndrome: Effects of cyclooxygenase inhibition. Am Rev Respir Dis 144:1095-1101, 1991
53. Weiss SJ: Tissue destruction by neutrophils. N Engl J Med 320:365-376, 1989
54. Mikawa K, Nishina K, Mackawa N, Obara H: Attenuation of hyperoxic lung injury in rabbits with superoxide dismutase: Effects on inflammatory mediators. Acta Anaesthiol. Scand 39:317-322, 1995
55. Kim HY, Picciano MF, Wallig MA: Postnatal selenium repletion protects lungs of neonatal rats from hyperoxia. J Nutr 122:1760-1767, 1992
56. Bernard GR: N-acetylcysteine in experimental and clinical acute lung injury. Am J Med 91:54-59, 1991 (suppl 3c)
57. Hallman M, Spragg R, Harrell JH, et al: Evidence of lung surfactant abnormality in respiratory failure: Study of bronchoalveolar lavage phospholipids, surface activity, phospholipase activity, and plasma myoinositol. J Clin Invest 70:673-683, 1983
58. Jobe A, Ihegami M: Surfactant for the treatment of respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 136:1256-1275, 1987
59. Lewis JF, Jobe AH: Surfactant and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 147:218-233, 1993
60. Weg JG, Balk RA, Tharratt RS, et al: Safety and potential efficacy of an aerosolized surfactant in human sepsis-induced adult respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 272:1433-1438, 1994
61. Spragg RG, Gillard N, Richman P, et al: Acute effects of a single dose of porcine surfactant on patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 105:195-202, 1994
62. Anzueto A, Baughman RP, Guntupalli KK, et al: Aerosolized surfactant in adults with sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 334:1417-1421, 1996
63. Matthay MA: The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 334:1469-1470, 1995
64. Haas CF, Weg JQ: Exogenous surfactant therapy: An update. Respiratory Care 41:397-415, 1996
65. Edelson JD: Epithelial dysfunction in acute lung injury. New Horizons 3:229-239, 1995
66. Gregory GA, Phibbs RH: Surfactant replacement for respiratory failure: Lessons from the neonate. Anesth Analg 76:465, 1993
67. Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL, et al: High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 317:1565-1570, 1987
68. Bone RC, Fisher CJ, Clemmer TP, et al: A controlled clinical trial of high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 317:653-658, 1987
69. Martin C, Papazian L, Payan MJ, et al: Pulmonary fibrosis correlates with outcome in adult respiratory distress syndrome: A study in mechanically ventilated patients. Chest 107:196-200, 1995
70. Meduri GU, Chinn AJ, Leeper KV, et al: Corticosteroid rescue treatment of progressive fibroproliferation in late ARDS: Patterns of response and predictors of outcome. Chest 105:1516-1527, 1994
71. Kacmarek RM, Dimas S, Reynolds J, Shapiro BA: Technical aspects of positive end-expiratory pressure. Parts 1-3. Respir Care 27:1478-1518, 1982
72. Gregory GA, Kitterman JA, Phibbs RH, et al: Treatment of the idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome with continuous positive airway pressure. N Engl J Med 284:1333-1340, 1971
73. Petty TL: Editorial on PEEP. Chest 61:309, 1972
74. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, Levine BE: Acute respiratory disease in adults. Lancet 2:319-323, 1967
75. Ashbaugh DG, Petty TL, Bigelow DB, Haris TM: Continuous positive-pressure breathing (CPPB) in adult respiratory distress syndrome. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 57:31-41, 1969
76. Gregory GA, Kitterman JA, Phibbs RH, et al: Treatment of the idiopathic respiratory-distress syndrome with continuous positive airway pressure. N Engl J Med 284:1333-1340, 1971
77. Kirby RR, Downs JB, Civetta JM, et al: High level positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in acute respiratory insufficiency. Chest 67:156-163, 1975
78. Gallagher TJ, Civetta JM, Kirby RR: Terminology update: Optimal PEEP. Crit Care Med 6:323-326, 1978
79. Suter PM, Fairley HB, Isenberg MD: Optimum end-expiratory airway pressure in patients with acute pulmonary failure. N Engl J Med 292:284-289, 1975
80. Walkinshaw M, Shoemaker WC: Use of volume-loading to obtain preferred levels of PEEP. Crit Care Med 8:81-86, 1980
81. Murray JP, Modell JH, Gallagher TJ, et al: Titration of PEEP by the arterial minus end-tidal carbon dioxide gradient. Chest 85:100-104, 1984
82. Nelson L, Civetta J, Hudson-Civetta J: Titrating positive end-expiratory pressure therapy in patients with early, moderate arterial hypoxemia. Crit Care Med 15:14-19, 1987
83. Carroll G, Tuman K, Braverman B, et al: Minimal positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be "best PEEP." Chest 93:1020-1025, 1988
84. Zapol W: Volutrauma and the intravenous oxygenation in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 77:856-863, 1992
85. Shapiro BA, Cane RD, Harrison RA: Positive end expiratory pressure therapy in adults with special reference to acute lung injury: A review of the literature and suggested clinical correlations. Crit Care Med 12:127-141, 1984
86. Demling RH, Staub NC, Edmonds LH: Effect of end-expiratory airway pressure on accumulation of extravascular lung water. J Appl Physiol 38:907-912, 1975
87. Caldini P, Leith JD, Brennan MJ: Effect of continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV) on edema formation in dog lung. J Appl Physiol 39:672-679, 1975
88. Miller WC, Rice DL, Unger KM, et al: Effect of PEEP on lung water content in experimental noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Crit Care Med 9:7-9, 1981
89. Kumar A, Falke KI, Geffin B, et al: Continuous positive-pressure ventilation in acute respiratory failure: Effects on hemodynamics and lung function. N Engl J Med 238:1430-1436, 1970
90. Kirby RR, Downs JB, Civetta JM, et al: High level positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in acute respiratory insufficiency. Chest 67:156-163, 1975
91. Daly BDT, Edmonds CH, Normal JC: In vivo alveolar morphometrics with positive end-expiratory pressure. Surg Forum 24:217-219, 1973
92. Gattinoni L, D'Andrea L, Pelosi P, et al: Regional effects and mechanism of positive end-expiratory pressure in early adult respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 269:2122-2127, 1993
93. Bedenberg CE, Kazui T, Webb WR: Experimental pulmonary edema: The effect of positive end-expiratory pressure on lung water. Ann Thorac Surg 26:62-67, 1978
94. Hopewell PC: Failure of positive end-expiratory pressure to decrease lung water content in alloxan-induced pulmonary edema. Am Rev Respir Dis 120:813-819, 1979
95. Demling RH, Staub NC, Edmonds LH: Effect of end-expiratory airway pressure on accumulation of extravascular lung water. J Appl Physiol 38:907-912, 1975
96. Goldberg HS, Mitzner W, Batra G: Effect of transpulmonary and vascular pressures on rate of pulmonary edema formation. J Appl Physiol 43:14-19, 1977
97. Miller WC, Rice DL, Unger KM, et al: Effect of PEEP on lung water content in experimental noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Crit Care Med 9:7-9, 1981
98. Malo J, Jameel A, Wood LDH: How does positive end-expiratory pressure reduce intrapulmonary shunt in canine pulmonary edema? J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exercise Physiol 57:1002-1010, 1984
99. Pare PD, Warriner B, Baile EM, et al: Redistribution of pulmonary extravascular water with positive end-expiratory pressure in canine pulmonary edema. Am Rev Respir Dis 127:590-593, 1983
100. Kumar A, Falke KI, Geffin B, et al: Continuous positive-pressure ventilation in acute respiratory failure: Effects on hemodynamics and lung function. N Engl J Med 238:1430-1436, 1970
101. McIntyre RW, Laws AK, Ramachandran PR: Positive expiratory pressure plateau: Improved gas exchange during positive-pressure ventilation. Can Anesth Soc J 16:477-486, 1969
102. Stoller JK, Kacmarek RM: Ventilatory strategies in the management of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med 11:755-772, 1990
103. Matamis D, Lemaire F, Hart A, et al: Total respiratory pressure-volume curves in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 86:58-66, 1984
104. Benito S, Lemaire F: Pulmonary pressure-volume relationship in acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: Role of positive end-expiratory pressure. J Crit Care 5:27-34, 1990
105. Ranieri VM, Eissa NT, Corbeil C, et al: Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on alveolar recruitment and gas exchange in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 144:544-551, 1991
106. Gattinoni L, Pesenti A, Bombino M, et al: Relationships between lung computed tomographic density, gas exchange, and PEEP in acute respiratory failure. Anesthesiology 69:824-832, 1988
107. Gattinoni L, Pesenti A, Avalli L, et al: Pressure-volume curve of total respiratory system in acute respiratory failure: CT scan study. Am Rev Respir Dis 136:730-736, 1987
108. Gattinoni L, Pelosi P, Crotti S, Valenza F: Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional distribution of tidal volume and recruitment in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151:1807-1814, 1995
109. Shapiro BA, Kacmarek RM, Cane RD, et al: "CPAP/PEEP Therapy" chap 20, Clinical Application of Respiratory Care (ed 4). St. Louis, MO, Mosby-Year Book, 1991; pp 335-364
110. Chandra A, Coggeshall JW, Ravenscraft SA, Marini JJ: Hyperpnea limits the volume recruited by positive end-expiratory pressure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150:911-917, 1994
111. Greenough A, Cahn V, Hird MF: Positive end-expiratory pressure in acute and chronic respiratory distress. Arch Dis Child 67:320-323, 1992
112. Bartholomew KM, Brownlee KG, Snowden S, Dear PRF: To PEEP or not to PEEP? Arch Dis Child 70:F209-F212, 1994
113. Keszler M, Ryckman FC, McDonald JV, et al: A prospective, multicenter, randomized study of high versus low positive end-expiratory pressure during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr 120:107-113, 1992
114. Miller RS, Nelson LD, DiRusso SM, et al: High-level positive end-expiratory pressure management in trauma-associated adult respiratory distress syndrome. The Journal of Trauma 33:284-291, 1992
115. DiRusso SM, Nelson LD, Safcsak K, Miller RS: Survival in patients with severe adult respiratory distress syndrome treated with high-level positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med 23:1485-1496, 1995
116. Britto M, Amato P, Barbas CSV, et al: Beneficial effects of the "open lung approach" with low distending pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:1835-1846, 1995
117. Roupie E, Dambrosio M, Servillo G, et al: Titration of tidal volume and induced hypercapnia in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:121-128, 1995
118. MacIntyre NR: Clinically available new strategies for mechanical ventilatory support. Chest 104:560-565, 1993
119. Marini JJ, Kelsen SG: Retargeting ventilatory objectives in adult respiratory distress syndrome: New treatment prospects: Persistent questions. Am Rev Respir Dis 146:2-3, 1992
120. Shapiro BA, Cane RD: The AMV-IMV controversy: A plea for clarification and redirection. Crit Care Med 12:472-473, 1984
121. Shapiro BA: When is an increase in the work of breathing clinically significant? Crit Care Med 18:681, 1990
122. Shapiro BA, Peruzzi WT: Changing practices in ventilator management: A review of the literature and suggested clinical correlations. Surgery 117:121-133, 1995
123. Shapiro BA: Historical perspective on ventilator management. New Horizons 2:8-18, 1994
124. Pontoppidan H, Hedley-Whyte J, Bendixen HH, et al: Ventilation and oxygenation requirements during prolonged artificial ventilation in patients with respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 273:401-409, 1965
125. Shapiro BA, Kacmarek RM, Cane RD, et al: Applications and complications of airway pressure therapy, chap 21, Clinical Application of Respiratory Care (ed 4). St Louis, MO, Mosby-Yearbook, 1991, pp 365-384
126. Haake R, Schlichtig R, Ulstad DR, et al: Barotrauma: Pathophysiology, risk factors, and prevention. Chest 91:608-613, 1987
127. Slutsky SS (Chairman): Mechanical Ventilation ACCP Consensus Conference. Chest 104:1833-1859, 1993
128. Hickling KG: Low-volume ventilation with permissive hypercapnia in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clinical Intensive Care 3:67-68, 1992
129. Stock MC, Downs JD, Frolicher DA: Airway pressure release ventilation. Crit Care Med 15:462-465, 1987
130. Cane RD, Peruzzi WT, Shapiro BA: Airway pressure release ventilation in severe acute respiratory failure. Chest 100:460-463, 1991
131. Ravizza AG, Caruga D, Cerchiari EL, et al: Inverse ratio and conventional ventilation: Comparison of the respiratory effects. Anesthesiology 59:A523, 1983
132. Marcy TW, Marini JJ: Inverse ratio ventilation in ARDS: Rationale and Implementation. Chest 100:494-504, 1991
133. Katz JA, Kraemer RW, Gjerde GE: Inspiratory work and airway pressure with continuous positive airway pressure delivery systems. Chest 88:519-526, 1985
134. MacIntyre NR: Respiratory function during pressure support ventilation. Chest 89:677-683, 1986
135. MacIntyre NR, Leatherman NE: Ventilatory muscle loads and the frequency-tidal volume pattern during inspiratory pressure-assisted (pressure-supported) ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:327-331, 1990
136. MacIntyre N, Nishimura M, Usada Y, et al: The Nagoya conference on system design and patient-ventilator interactions during pressure support ventilation. Chest 97:1463-1466, 1990
137. Brochard L, Harf A, Lorino H, Lemaire F: Inspiratory pressure support prevents diaphragmatic fatigue during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 139:513-521, 1989
138. MacIntyre NR: Pressure support ventilation (editorial). Respir Care 31:189-190, 1986
139. Shapiro BA, Peruzzi WT, Templin R: Circulation and Perfusion, chap 13, Clinical Application of Blood Gases (ed 5). St Louis, MO, Mosby-Yearbook, Inc, 1994, pp 212-215
140. Suter PM, Fairley HB, Isenberg MD: Optimum end expiratory pressure in patients with acute pulmonary failure. N Engl J Med 292:284-289, 1975
141. Moncada A, Higgs A: The L-Arginine-Nitric Oxide Pathway. N Engl J Med 329:2002-2012, 1993
142. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Byrns RE, et al: Endothelial-derived relaxing factor and nitric oxide possess identical pharmacologic properties as relaxants of bovine arterial and venous smooth muscle. J Pharm Exp Ther 246:218-226, 1988
143. Archer SL, Rist K, Nelson DP, et al: Comparison of the hemodynamic effects of nitric oxide and endothelial-dependent vasodilators in intact lungs. J Appl Physiol 68:735-747, 1990
144. Moncada S, Palmer RMJ, Higgs EA: Nitric oxide: Physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev 43:109-142, 1991
145. Gruetter CA, Gruetter DY, Lyon JE, et al: Relationship between cyclic guanosine 3′:5′-monophosphate formation and relaxation of coronary arterial smooth muscle by glyceryl trinitrate, nitroprusside, nitrite and nitric oxide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 219:181-186, 1981
146. Frostell CG, Blomquist H, Hedenstierna G, et al: Inhaled nitric oxide selectively reverses human hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction without causing systemic vasodilation. Anesthesiology 78:427-435, 1993
147. Oda H, Nogami H, Kusomoto S, et al: Long-term exposure to nitric oxide in mice. J Jpn Soc Air Pollut 11:150-160, 1976
148. Frostell CG, Blomqvist H, Hedenstierna G, et al: Inhaled nitric oxide selectively reverses human hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction without causing systemic vasodilation. Anesthesiology 78:427-435, 1993
149. Doyle ML, Hoekstra JW: Oxidation of nitrogen dioxides by bound dioxygen in hemoproteins. J Inorg Biochem 14:351-358, 1981
150. Rossaint R, Falke KJ, Lopez F, et al: Inhaled nitric oxide for the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 328:399-405, 1993
151. Cioffi WG, Ogura H: Inhaled nitric oxide in acute lung disease. New Horizons 3:73-84, 1995
152. Rossaint R, Falke KJ, Lopez F, et al: Inhaled nitric oxide for the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 328:399-455, 1993
153. Zapol WM, Falke KJ, Rossaint R: Inhaled nitric oxide for the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Eng J Med 329:206-207, 1993
154. Gerlach H, Pappert D, Lewandowski K, et al: Long-term inhalation with evaluated low doses of nitric oxide for selective improvement of oxygenation in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 19:443-449, 1993
155. Bigatello LM, Hurford WE, Kacmarek RM, et al: Prolonged inhalation of low concentrations of nitric oxide in patients with severe adult respiratory distress syndrome: Effects on pulmonary hemodynamics and oxygenation. Anesthesiology 80:761-770, 1994
156. Zapol WM, Hurford WE: Inhaled nitric oxide in the adult respiratory distress syndrome and other lung diseases. New Horizons 1:638-650, 1993
157. Freeman B: Free radical chemistry of nitric oxide: Looking at the dark side. Chest 105:79s-84s, 1994
158. Fuhrman BP, Paczan PR, DeFrancisis M: Perfluorocarbon-associated gas exchange. Crit Care Med 19:712-722, 1991
159. Hurst JM, Branson RD: Liquid breathing: Partial liquid ventilation. Respir Care 41:416-423, 1996
160. Overbeck MC, Pranikoff T, Yadao CM, Hirschl RB: Efficacy of perfluorocarbon partial liquid ventilation in a large animal model of acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 24:1208-1214, 1996
161. Steinhorn DM, Leach CL, Fuhrman BP, Holm BA: Partial liquid ventilation enhances surfactant phospholipid production. Crit Care Med 24:1252-1256, 1996
162. Hirschl RB, Pranikoff T, Wise C, et al: Initial experience with partial liquid ventilation in adult patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 275:383-389, 1996
163. Gaugher PG, Pranikoff T, Schreiner RJ, et al: Initial experience with partial liquid ventilation in pediatric patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 24:16-22, 1996
164. Hirschl RB, Pranikoff T, Gauger P, et al: Liquid ventilation in adults, children and full term neonates. Lancet 346:1201-1202, 1995
165. Shapiro BA, Peruzzi WT: Intracorporeal respiratory support: A potential supplement to airway pressure therapy? Chest 103:1-2, 1993
166. Davis WB, Rennard SI, Bitterman PB, et al: Pulmonary oxygen toxicity: Early reversible changes in human alveolar structures induced by hyperoxia. N Engl J Med 309:878-883, 1983
167. Hill JD, O'Brien TG, Murray JJ, et al: Prolonged extracorporeal oxygenation for acute post-traumatic respiratory failure (shock lung syndrome). N Engl J Med 286:629-634, 1972
168. Zapol WM, Snider MT, Hill JD, et al: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe acute respiratory failure. JAMA 242:2193-2196, 1979
169. 2 removal. Lancet 2:292-294, 1980
170. Morris AH, Wallace CJ, Menlove RL, et al: Final report: A computerized protocol controlled randomized clinical trial of new therapy that includes LFPPV-ECCO2R. Am Rev Respir Dis 145 (4, Part 2):A184, 1992
171. Conrad SA, Eggerstedt JM, Morris VF, Romero MD: Prolonged intracorporeal support of gas exchange with an intravenacaval oxygenator (IVOX). Chest 103:158-161, 1993
172. Mortensen JD, Gaykowski R, Schaap RN: Results of phase I of the clinical trials of the intravenous oxygenator (IVOX). Crit Care Med 19:591, 1991 (suppl)
173. Rossaint R, Slama K, Falke KJ: Therapy of acute pulmonary failure. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 116:1635-1639, 1991
174. Lessard MR, Guerot E, Lorino H, et al: Effects of pressure-controlled with different I:E ratios versus volume-controlled ventilation on respiratory mechanics, gas exchange, and hemodynamics in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 80:983-991, 1994
175. Marini JJ: Ventilation of the acute respiratory distress syndrome: Looking for Mr. Goodmode. Anesthesiology 80:972-975, 1994