Cheesecake and beefcake: No matter how you slice it, sexual explicitness in advertising continues to increase

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 76, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 7-20

  Reichert, Tom ^a   Lambiase, Jacqueline ^a   Morgan, Susan ^a   Carstarphen, Meta ^a   Zavoina, Susan ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0008670438     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909907600102     Document Type: Article

References (79)

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6. Lawrence C. Soley and Gary Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising 15 (3, 1986): 46-54, 64; Soley and Reid, "Baiting Viewers," 105-110, 131; Lawrence C. Soley and Leonard N. Reid, "Taking It Off: Are Models in Magazine Ads Wearing Less?" Journalism Quarterly 65 (winter 1988): 960-66.
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9. Cornel West, "Market Culture Run Amok: The '80s," Newsweek, 3 January 1994, 46-49; D. R. Hall, "Note on the Erotic Economy: The Condom in the Age of AIDS," Journal of American Culture 13 (winter 1990): 23-28; R. J. Barilleaux and R. E. Adkins, "The Elections of 1992,"' in Congressional Quarterly, ed. M. Nelson (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1993).
10. Cyndee Miller, "Publisher Says Sexy Ads Are OK, But Sexist Ones Will Sink Sales," Marketing News 26 (November 23, 1992): 8-9.
11. George E. Belch, Michael A. Belch, and Angela Villarreal, "Effects of Advertising Communications: Review of Research," in Research in Marketing, ed. J. Sheth (NY: JAI Press, 1987), 9, 59-117; Larry Percy and J. R. Rossiter, "Advertising Stimulus Effects: A Review," Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising 14 (spring 1992): 75-90.
12. George E. Belch, Michael A. Belch, and Angela Villarreal, "Effects of Advertising Communications: Review of Research," in Research in Marketing, ed. J. Sheth (NY: JAI Press, 1987), 9, 59-117; Larry Percy and J. R. Rossiter, "Advertising Stimulus Effects: A Review," Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising 14 (spring 1992): 75-90.
13. Alice E. Courtney and Thomas W. Whipple, Sex Stereotyping in Advertising (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1983), 118.
14. Michael A. Belch, B. E. Holgerson, George E. Belch, and J. Koppman, "Psychophysical and Cognitive Responses to Sex in Advertising," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. A. Mitchell (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981) 9, 424-27; Leonard N. Reid and Lawrence C. Soley, "Another Look At The 'Decorative' Female Model: The Recognition of Visual And Verbal Ad Components," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (1981): 122-33; Eusebio Alvaro, Tom Reichert, and R. Kirkland Ahern, "The Impact of Sexually Oriented Appeals in Advertising on Cognition, Memory, and Persuasion" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western States Communication Association, Monterey, CA, February, 1997).
15. Michael A. Belch, B. E. Holgerson, George E. Belch, and J. Koppman, "Psychophysical and Cognitive Responses to Sex in Advertising," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. A. Mitchell (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981) 9, 424-27; Leonard N. Reid and Lawrence C. Soley, "Another Look At The 'Decorative' Female Model: The Recognition of Visual And Verbal Ad Components," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (1981): 122-33; Eusebio Alvaro, Tom Reichert, and R. Kirkland Ahern, "The Impact of Sexually Oriented Appeals in Advertising on Cognition, Memory, and Persuasion" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western States Communication Association, Monterey, CA, February, 1997).
16. Michael A. Belch, B. E. Holgerson, George E. Belch, and J. Koppman, "Psychophysical and Cognitive Responses to Sex in Advertising," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. A. Mitchell (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981) 9, 424-27; Leonard N. Reid and Lawrence C. Soley, "Another Look At The 'Decorative' Female Model: The Recognition of Visual And Verbal Ad Components," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (1981): 122-33; Eusebio Alvaro, Tom Reichert, and R. Kirkland Ahern, "The Impact of Sexually Oriented Appeals in Advertising on Cognition, Memory, and Persuasion" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western States Communication Association, Monterey, CA, February, 1997).
17. William F. Grazer and Garland Keesling, "The Effect of Print Advertising's Use of Sexual Themes On Brand Recall And Purchase Intention: A Product Specific Investigation Of Male Responses," Journal of Applied Business Research 11 (summer 1995): 47-58; Benjamin B. Judd and M. W. Alexander, "On The Reduced Effectiveness Of Some Sexually Suggestive Ads," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 11 (spring 1983): 156-68; Jessica Severn, George E. Belch, and Michael A. Belch, "The Effects Of Sexual And Non-Sexual Advertising Appeals And Information Level On Cognitive Processing And Communication Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising 19 (1, 1990): 14-22.
18. William F. Grazer and Garland Keesling, "The Effect of Print Advertising's Use of Sexual Themes On Brand Recall And Purchase Intention: A Product Specific Investigation Of Male Responses," Journal of Applied Business Research 11 (summer 1995): 47-58; Benjamin B. Judd and M. W. Alexander, "On The Reduced Effectiveness Of Some Sexually Suggestive Ads," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 11 (spring 1983): 156-68; Jessica Severn, George E. Belch, and Michael A. Belch, "The Effects Of Sexual And Non-Sexual Advertising Appeals And Information Level On Cognitive Processing And Communication Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising 19 (1, 1990): 14-22.
19. William F. Grazer and Garland Keesling, "The Effect of Print Advertising's Use of Sexual Themes On Brand Recall And Purchase Intention: A Product Specific Investigation Of Male Responses," Journal of Applied Business Research 11 (summer 1995): 47-58; Benjamin B. Judd and M. W. Alexander, "On The Reduced Effectiveness Of Some Sexually Suggestive Ads," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 11 (spring 1983): 156-68; Jessica Severn, George E. Belch, and Michael A. Belch, "The Effects Of Sexual And Non-Sexual Advertising Appeals And Information Level On Cognitive Processing And Communication Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising 19 (1, 1990): 14-22.
20. Penny M. Simpson, Steve Horton, and Gene Brown, "Male Nudity In Advertisements: A Modified Replication And Extension Of Gender And Product Effects," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 24 (summer 1996): 257-62.
21. Michael S. LaTour and Tony L. Henthorne, "Ethical Judgements Of Sexual Appeals In Print Advertising," Journal of Advertising 23 (September 1994): 81-90.
22. Bradley S. Greenberg, "Content Trends in Media Sex," in Media,Sex and the Adolescent, ed. Bradley S. Greenberg, Jane D. Brown, and Nancy L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1993), 165-182.
23. Margaret Carlson, "Where Calvin Crossed the Line," Time, 11 September 1995, 64.
24. Samual S. Janus and Cynthia L. Janus, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1993); R. Kirkland Ahern and Tom Reichert, "Focus on the Long-Term: A 25-Year Examination of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Via GSS Data" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Association of Public Opinion Research, Chicago, November, 1997).
25. Samual S. Janus and Cynthia L. Janus, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1993); R. Kirkland Ahern and Tom Reichert, "Focus on the Long-Term: A 25-Year Examination of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Via GSS Data" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Association of Public Opinion Research, Chicago, November, 1997).
26. Shervert H. Frazier, "Psychotrends: Taking Stock Of Tomorrow's Family And Sexuality," Psychology Today, 27 January 1994, 32-40.
27. Michael S. LaTour, "Female Nudity In Print Advertising: An Analysis Of Gender Differences In Arousal And Ad Response," Psychology and Marketing 7 (spring 1990): 65-81; Severn, Belch, and Belch, "The Effects Of," 14-22; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
28. Michael S. LaTour, "Female Nudity In Print Advertising: An Analysis Of Gender Differences In Arousal And Ad Response," Psychology and Marketing 7 (spring 1990): 65-81; Severn, Belch, and Belch, "The Effects Of," 14-22; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
29. Michael S. LaTour, "Female Nudity In Print Advertising: An Analysis Of Gender Differences In Arousal And Ad Response," Psychology and Marketing 7 (spring 1990): 65-81; Severn, Belch, and Belch, "The Effects Of," 14-22; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
30. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54, 64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
31. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54, 64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
32. LaTour, "Female Nudity," 65-81; Belch, Belch, and Villarreal, "Effects Of Advertising," 59-117.
33. LaTour, "Female Nudity," 65-81; Belch, Belch, and Villarreal, "Effects Of Advertising," 59-117.
34. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
35. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54, 64.
36. Barry S. Sapolsky and Joseph O. Tabarlet, "Sex In Primetime Television: 1979 vs. 1989," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (fall 1991): 505-16.
37. S. A. Seidman, "An Investigation Of Sex-Role Stereotyping In Music Videos," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media (spring 1992): 209-216; R. Sommers-Flanagan, J. Sommers-Flanagan, and B. Davis, "What's Happening On Music Television? A Gender Role Content Analysis," Sex Roles 28 (June 1993): 745-53.
38. S. A. Seidman, "An Investigation Of Sex-Role Stereotyping In Music Videos," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media (spring 1992): 209-216; R. Sommers-Flanagan, J. Sommers-Flanagan, and B. Davis, "What's Happening On Music Television? A Gender Role Content Analysis," Sex Roles 28 (June 1993): 745-53.
39. Fred Fejes, "Masculinity As Fact: A Review of Empirical Mass Communication Research on Masculinity," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. S. Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage 1992), 9-22; G. U. Skelly and W. J. Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles in Magazine Advertising, 1959-1979," Journal of Communication 31 (autumn 1981): 52-57; Denise Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity: The Representation of Males in Esquire Advertisements," Journal of Communication Inquiry 14 (summer 1990): 51-69; A. Wernick, "From Voyeur to Narcissist: Images of Men in Contemporary Advertising," in Beyond Patriarchy: Essays by Men on Pleasure, Power, and Change, ed. M. Kaufman (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987), 227-97.
40. Fred Fejes, "Masculinity As Fact: A Review of Empirical Mass Communication Research on Masculinity," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. S. Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage 1992), 9-22; G. U. Skelly and W. J. Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles in Magazine Advertising, 1959-1979," Journal of Communication 31 (autumn 1981): 52-57; Denise Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity: The Representation of Males in Esquire Advertisements," Journal of Communication Inquiry 14 (summer 1990): 51-69; A. Wernick, "From Voyeur to Narcissist: Images of Men in Contemporary Advertising," in Beyond Patriarchy: Essays by Men on Pleasure, Power, and Change, ed. M. Kaufman (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987), 227-97.
41. Fred Fejes, "Masculinity As Fact: A Review of Empirical Mass Communication Research on Masculinity," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. S. Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage 1992), 9-22; G. U. Skelly and W. J. Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles in Magazine Advertising, 1959-1979," Journal of Communication 31 (autumn 1981): 52-57; Denise Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity: The Representation of Males in Esquire Advertisements," Journal of Communication Inquiry 14 (summer 1990): 51-69; A. Wernick, "From Voyeur to Narcissist: Images of Men in Contemporary Advertising," in Beyond Patriarchy: Essays by Men on Pleasure, Power, and Change, ed. M. Kaufman (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987), 227-97.
42. Fred Fejes, "Masculinity As Fact: A Review of Empirical Mass Communication Research on Masculinity," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. S. Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage 1992), 9-22; G. U. Skelly and W. J. Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles in Magazine Advertising, 1959-1979," Journal of Communication 31 (autumn 1981): 52-57; Denise Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity: The Representation of Males in Esquire Advertisements," Journal of Communication Inquiry 14 (summer 1990): 51-69; A. Wernick, "From Voyeur to Narcissist: Images of Men in Contemporary Advertising," in Beyond Patriarchy: Essays by Men on Pleasure, Power, and Change, ed. M. Kaufman (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987), 227-97.
43. R. W. Belk and R. W. Pollay, "Images of Ourselves: The Good Life in Twentieth Century Advertising," Journal of Consumer Research 11 (March 1985): 887-97.
44. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
45. Linda Lazier-Smith, "Advertising: Women's Place and Image," in Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values, ed. P. J. Creedon, (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 247-62; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57.
46. Linda Lazier-Smith, "Advertising: Women's Place and Image," in Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values, ed. P. J. Creedon, (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 247-62; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57.
47. L. J. Busby and G. Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising in Traditional and Nontraditional Women's Magazines 1950s-1980s," Journalism Quarterly 70 (summer 1993): 247-64; J. H. Ferguson, P. J. Kreshel, and S. F. Tinkham, "In the Pages of Ms.: Sex Role Portrayals of Women in Advertising," Journal of Advertising 19 (1, 1990): 40-51.
48. L. J. Busby and G. Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising in Traditional and Nontraditional Women's Magazines 1950s-1980s," Journalism Quarterly 70 (summer 1993): 247-64; J. H. Ferguson, P. J. Kreshel, and S. F. Tinkham, "In the Pages of Ms.: Sex Role Portrayals of Women in Advertising," Journal of Advertising 19 (1, 1990): 40-51.
49. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57.
50. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57.
51. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
52. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
53. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
54. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
55. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
56. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
57. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
58. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
59. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-64; Kervin, "Advertising Masculinity," 51-69; M. L. Klassen, C. R. Jasper, and A. M. Schwartz, "Men and Women: Images of Their Relationships in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research 33 (March/April 1993): 30-39; Lazier-Smith, "Advertising," 247-62 ; S. Pingree, R. P. Hawkins, M. Butler, and W. Paisley, "A Scale for Sexism," Journal of Communication (autumn 1976): 193-200; Skelly and Lundstrom, "Male Sex Roles," 52-57; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64.
60. J. L. Fleiss, Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions (NY: Wiley, 1981).
61. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
62. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66. See for a detailed description of each level.
63. Douglas Sloane, and S. Phillip Morgan, "An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis," in Annual Review of Sociology, ed. J. Hagan and K. S. Cook (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 1996), 351-75. The authors provide an excellent, nontechnical discussion of the concepts behind loglinear analysis.
64. Thomas D. Wickens, Multiway Contingency Tables Analysis for the Social Sciences (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989).
65. C. C. Hall and M. J. Crum, "Women and 'Body-isms' in Television Beer Commercials," Sex Roles 31 (September 1994): 329-37; Nancy Signorielli, D. McLeod, and E. Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Sommers-Flanagan, Sommers-Flanagan, and Davis, "What's Happening," 745-53.
66. C. C. Hall and M. J. Crum, "Women and 'Body-isms' in Television Beer Commercials," Sex Roles 31 (September 1994): 329-37; Nancy Signorielli, D. McLeod, and E. Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Sommers-Flanagan, Sommers-Flanagan, and Davis, "What's Happening," 745-53.
67. C. C. Hall and M. J. Crum, "Women and 'Body-isms' in Television Beer Commercials," Sex Roles 31 (September 1994): 329-37; Nancy Signorielli, D. McLeod, and E. Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Sommers-Flanagan, Sommers-Flanagan, and Davis, "What's Happening," 745-53.
68. C. C. Hall and M. J. Crum, "Women and 'Body-isms' in Television Beer Commercials," Sex Roles 31 (September 1994): 329-37; Nancy Signorielli, D. McLeod, and E. Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Sommers-Flanagan, Sommers-Flanagan, and Davis, "What's Happening," 745-53.
69. C. C. Hall and M. J. Crum, "Women and 'Body-isms' in Television Beer Commercials," Sex Roles 31 (September 1994): 329-37; Nancy Signorielli, D. McLeod, and E. Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101; Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising," 46-54,64; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66; Sommers-Flanagan, Sommers-Flanagan, and Davis, "What's Happening," 745-53.
70. Sigmund Freud, "Femininity," in The Women and Language Debate, ed. Camille Roman, Suzanne Juhasz, and Cristanne Miller (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 20-36.
71. See Helene Cixous, "The Laugh of the Medusa," in The Women and Language Debate, ed. Camille Roman, Suzanne Juhasz, and Cristanne Miller (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 78-93. It is this male "writing" of the body that this French feminist resists through her own writing of the feminine. "Let nothing stop you," she asserts, "not man; not the imbecilic capitalist machinery, in which publishing houses are the crafty, obsequious relayers of imperatives handed down by an economy that works against us and off our backs; and not yourself" (79).
72. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-24; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off" 960-66.
73. Busby and Leichty, "Feminism and Advertising," 247-24; Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off" 960-66.
74. Soley and Reid, "Taking It Off," 960-66.
75. S. Moore, "Here's Looking at You, Kid!," in The Female Gaze, ed. L. Gaminan and M. Marshment (London: The Women's Press, 1988); See also C. Steinman, "Gaze Out of Bounds: Men Watching Men on Television," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. Steve Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 199-214; Margaret Olin, "It Is Not Going To Be Easy To Look Into Their Eyes: Privilege of Perception in Let Us Now Praise Famous Men," Art History 14 (March 1991): 92-115.
76. S. Moore, "Here's Looking at You, Kid!," in The Female Gaze, ed. L. Gaminan and M. Marshment (London: The Women's Press, 1988); See also C. Steinman, "Gaze Out of Bounds: Men Watching Men on Television," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. Steve Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 199-214; Margaret Olin, "It Is Not Going To Be Easy To Look Into Their Eyes: Privilege of Perception in Let Us Now Praise Famous Men," Art History 14 (March 1991): 92-115.
77. S. Moore, "Here's Looking at You, Kid!," in The Female Gaze, ed. L. Gaminan and M. Marshment (London: The Women's Press, 1988); See also C. Steinman, "Gaze Out of Bounds: Men Watching Men on Television," in Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. Steve Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 199-214; Margaret Olin, "It Is Not Going To Be Easy To Look Into Their Eyes: Privilege of Perception in Let Us Now Praise Famous Men," Art History 14 (March 1991): 92-115.
78. J. Neimark, "The Beefcaking of America," Psychology Today 26 (November 1994): 32-42.
79. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis - An Essay on the Organization of Experience (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1974).