Silicon piezoresistive stress sensors and their application in electronic packaging

IEEE Sensors Journal

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 14-30

  Suhling, Jeffrey C ^a,b   Jaeger, Richard C ^a,b  

^a IEEE   (United States)

^b AUBURN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Electronic packaging; Piezoresistive; Stress sensor; Test chip

Indexed keywords

EID: 0002647466     PISSN: 1530437X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2001.923584     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. P. W. Bridgeman, "The effect of homogenous mechanical stress on the electrical resistance of crystals," Phys. Rev., vol. 42, pp. 858-863, 1932.
2. P. W. Bridgman, "The effect of pressure on the electrical resistance of certain semiconductors," Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci., vol. 79, no. 3, pp. 125-179, 1951.
3. C. S. Smith, "Piezoresistance effect in silicon and germanium," Phys. Rev., vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 42-49, 1954.
4. W. P. Mason and R. N. Thurston, "Use of piezoresistive materials in the measurement of displacement, force, and torque," J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1096-1101, 1957.
5. W. G. Pfann and R. N. Thurston, "Semiconducting stress transducers utilizing the transverse and shear piezoresistance effects," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 2008-2019, 1961.
6. O. N. Tufte and E. L. Stelzer, "Piezoresistive properties of heavily doped n-type silicon," Phys. Rev., vol. 133, pp. A1705-A1716, 1964.
7. W. Paul and G. L. Pearson, "Pressure dependence of the resistivity of silicon," Phys. Rev., vol. 98, pp. 1755-1757, 1955.
8. F. J. Morin, T. H. Geballe, and C. Herring, "Temperature dependence of the piezoresistance of high-purity silicon and germanium," Phys. Rev., vol. 105, no. 2, pp. 525-539, 1957.
9. Y. Kanda, "A graphical representation of the piezoresistive coefficients in silicon," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-29, pp. 64-70, Jan. 1982.
10. K. Yamada et al, "Nonlinearity of the piezoresistance effect of p-type silicon diffused layers," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-29, pp. 71-77,Jan. 1982.
11. J. L. Spencer, W. H. Schroen, G. A. Bednarz, J. A. Bryan, T. D. Metzgar, R. D. Cleveland, and D. R. Edwards, "New quantitative measurements of 1C stress introduced by plastic packages," in Proc. 19th IEEE Annu. Reliability Phys. Symp., New York, 1981, pp. 74-80.
12. D. R. Edwards, G. Meinen, G. A. Bednarz, and W. H. Schroen, "Test structure methodology of IC package material characterization," in Proc. 33rd IEEE Electron. Components Conf., New York, 1983, pp. 386-393.
13. D. R. Edwards, K. G. Heinen, J. E. Martinez, and S. Groothuis, "Shear stress evaluation of plastic packages," in Proc. 37th IEEE Electron. Components Conf., New York, 1987, pp. 84-95.
14. S. A. Gee, W. F. van den Bogert, and V. R. Akylas, "Strain-gauge map-ping of die surface stresses," IEEE Trans. Comp., Hybrids, Manufact. Technol., vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 587-593, 1989.
15. D. A. Bittle, J. C. Suhling, R. E. Beaty, R. C. Jaeger, and R. W. Johnson, "Piezoresistive stress sensors for structural analysis of electronic pack-ages," J. Electron. Packag., vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 203-215, 1991.
16. L. T. Nguyen, S. A. Gee, and W. F. van den Bogert, "Effects of config-uration on plastic package stress," J. Electron. Packag., vol. 113, no. 4, pp. 397-404, 1991.
17. J. N. Sweet and D. W. Peterson, "High accuracy die mechanical stress measurement with the ATC04 assembly test chip," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Workshop, pp. 1-8.
18. H. Miura, M. Kitano, A. Nishimura, and S. Kawai, "Thermal stress measurement in silicon chips encapsulated in 1C plastic packages under thermal cycling," J. Electron. Packag., vol. 115, no. 1, pp. 9-15, 1993.
19. J. N. Sweet, "Die stress measurement using piezoresistive stress sensors," in Thermal Stress and Strain in Microelectronics Packaging, J. Lau, Ed. New York: Von Nostrand Reinhold, 1993, pp. 221-271.
20. R. van Gestel, "Reliability related research on plastic 1C packages: A test chip approach," Ph.D. dissertation, Delft Technical Univ., The Netherlands, 1994.
21. J. C. Suhling, R. E. Beaty, R. C. Jaeger, and A. W. Johnson, "Piezoresistive stress sensors for measurement of thermally-induced stresses in microelectronics," in Proc. Spring Conf. Soc. Experimental Mechanics, Milwaukee, WI, June 10-13, pp. 683-694.
22. R. A. Cordes, J. C. Suhling, Y. Kang, and R. C. Jaeger, "Optimal temperature compensated piezoresistive stress sensor Rosettes," in Proc. Symp. Applicat. Experimental Mechanics Electron. Packaging, ASME, EEP, vol. 13, 1995, pp. 109-116.
23. J. C. Suhling, R. C. Jaeger, B. M. Wilamowski, S. T. Lin, A. K. M. Mian, and R. A. Cordes, "Design and calibration of optimized (111) silicon stress sensing test chips," in Proc. INTERpack, Kohala, HI, June 15-19, 1997, pp. 1721-1729.
24. R. C. Jaeger, J. C. Suhling, and R. Ramani, "Thermally induced errors in the application of silicon piezoresistive stress sensors," in Advances in Electronic Packaging -Proc. ASME Int. Electron. Packaging Conf., Binghamton, NY, Sept. 29-Oct. 2, 1993, pp. 457-470.
25. R. C. Jaeger, J. C. Suhling, and R. Ramani, "Errors associated with the design, calibration of piezoresistive stress sensors in (100) silicon," IEEE Trans. Compon., Packag., Manufact. Technol. B, vol. 17, pp. 97-107, Feb. 1994.
26. R. C. Jaeger, R. E. Beaty, J. C. Suhling, R. W. Johnson, and R. D. Butler, "Evaluation of piezoresistive coefficient variation in silicon stress sensors using a four-point bending test fixture," IEEE Trans. Compon., Hybrids, Manufact. Technol., vol. 15, pp. 904-914, 1992.
27. Y Kang, A. K. M. Mian, J. C. Suhling, R. C., and Jaeger, "Hydrostatic response of piezoresistive stress sensors," in Application of Experimental Mechanics to Electronic Packaging. Dallas, TX: ASME, Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. Expo., November 16-21, 1997, vol. 22, pp. 29-36.
28. H. J. McSkimin, W. L. Bond, E. Buehler, and G. K. Teal, "Measurement of the elastic constants of silicon single crystals and their thermal coefficients," Phys. Rev., vol. 83, p. 1080, 1951.
29. H. J. McSkimin and P. Andreatch, "Measurement of third-order moduli of silicon and germanium," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 3312-3319, 1964.
30. Y Zou, J. C. Suhling, R. W. Johnson, and R. C. Jaeger, "Complete stress state measurements in chip on board packages," in Proc. Int. Conf. Multichip Modules High Density Packaging, Denver, CO, April 15-17, 1998, pp. 425-435.
31. Y Zou, J. C. Suhling, R. W. Johnson, R. C. Jaeger, and A. K. M. Mian, "In-situ stress state measurements during chip-on-board assembly," IEEE Trans. Electron. Packag. Manufact., vol. 22, pp. 38-52, Jan. 1999.
32. R. C. Jaeger, J. C. Suhling, M. T. Carey, and R. W. Johnson, "Off-axis piezoresistive sensors for measurement of stress in electronic packaging," IEEE Trans. Compon., Hybrids, Manufact. Technol., vol. 16, pp. 925-931, Aug. 1993.
33. Y Zou, J. C. Suhling, R. C. Jaeger, and H. Ali, "Three-dimensional die surface stress measurements in delaminated and nondelaminated plastic packaging," in Proc. 48th Electron. Compon. and Technol. Conf., Seattle, WA, May 25-28, 1998, pp. 1223-1234.
34. Y Zou, S. T. Lin, J. C. Suhling, R. C. Jaeger, J. T. Benoit, and R. R. Grzybowski, "Die surface stress variation during thermal cycling and thermal aging reliability tests," in Proc. 49th Electron. Compon. Technol. Conf., San Diego, CA, June 1999, pp. 1249-1260.
35. S. Gee, T. Doan, and K. Gilbert, "Stress related offset voltage shift in a precision operational amplifier," in IEEE ECTC Dig., 1993, pp. 755-764.
36. H. Miura and A. Nishimura, "Device characteristic changes caused by packaging stress," ASME AMD, vol. 195, pp. 101-109, 1994.
37. R. C. Jaeger, R. Ramani, and J. C. Suhling, "Effects of stress-induced mismatches on CMOS analog circuits," in Proc. Int. VLSI TSA Symp., Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., May 1995, pp. 354-360.
38. J. Bastos, M. Steyaert, B. Graindourze, and W. Sansen, "Influence of die attachment on MOS transistor matching," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Microelectronic Test Structures, Sept. 1996, pp. 27-31.
39. H. Ali, "Stress-induced parametric shift in plastic packaged devices," IEEE Trans. Compon., Packag. Manufact. Technol. B, vol. 20, Nov. 1997.
40. R. C. Jaeger, A. T. Bradley, J. C. Suhling, and Y. Zou, "FET mobility degradation and device mismatch due to packaging induced die stress," in Proc. 23rd Eur. Solid-State Circuits Conf., Sept. 1997, pp. 272-275.
41. D. Colman, R. T. Bate, and J. P. Mize, "Mobility anisotropy and piezoresistance in silicon p-type inversion layers," J. Appl. Phys., pp. 1923-1931, Mar. 1968.
42. A. P. Dorey and T. S. Maddern, "The effect of strain on MOS transistors," Solid-State Electron., vol. 12, pp. 185-189, 1969.
43. H. Mikoshiba, "Stress-sensitive properties of silicon-gate MOS devices," Solid-State Electron., vol. 24, pp. 221-232, 1981.
44. A. Hamada, T. Furusawa, and E. Takeda, "A new aspect of mechanical stress effects in scaled MOS devices," in Proc. Symp. VLSI Techn. Conf., June 1990, pp. 113-114.
45. Z. Z. Wang, J. Suski, D. Collard, and E. Dubois, "Piezoresistivity effects in N-MOSFET devices," in Proc. Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, 1991, pp. 1024-1027.
46. A. P. Dorey, "A high sensitivity semiconductor strain sensitive circuit," Solid-State Electron., vol. 18, pp. 295-299, 1975.
47. J. Neumeister, G. Schuster, and W. von Munch, "A silicon pressure sensor using MOS ring oscillators," Sens. Actuators, vol. 7, pp. 167-176, 1985.
48. R. C. Jaeger, R. Ramani, J. C. Suhling, and Y. Kang, "CMOS stress sensor circuits using piezoresistive field-effect transistors (PIFET's)," in 1995 Symp. VLSI Circuits Dig. Tech. Papers, June 1995, pp. 43-44.
49. H. Takao, Y Matsumoto, and M. Ishida, "A monolithically integrated three-axis accelerometer using CMOS compatible stress-sensitive differential amplifiers," IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices, vol. 46, pp. 109-116, Jan. 1999.
50. R. C. Jaeger, J. C. Suhling, R. Ramani, A. T. Bradley, and J. Xu, "CMOS stress sensors on (100) silicon," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 35, pp. 85-95, Jan. 2000.
51. A. T. Bradley, R. C. Jaeger, J. C. Suhling, and Y Zou, "Die stress characterization using arrays of CMOS sensors," IEEE Trans. Adv. Packag., submitted for publication.