Parties and voters in the 1995 Russian duma election

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 49, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 767-798

  White, Stephen ^a   Wyman, Matthew ^a   Oates, Sarah ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000988674     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139708412473     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. We wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Leverhulme Trust, which facilitated a visit to Moscow as official observers by Stephen White and Matthew Wyman in December 1995, and the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Program and the International Research and Exchanges Board, which funded Sarah Oates's research visit to Moscow, in the course of which she was able to collect electoral programmes, posters and flyers, and arrange for the collection of survey data by the All-Russian Centre for Public Opinion Research (VTsIOM) on which we draw in this article.
2. The Politburo, in the late Soviet period, approved the communiqué of the Central Electoral Commission before the elections had taken place (see Izvestiya, 13 July 1992, p. 3). Brecht had suggested in 'The Solution' that rather than dissolve the government after the uprising of 17 June 1953 it would have been 'simpler ... if the government dissolved the people and elected another' (Alan Bold (ed.), The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse (Harmondsworth, Penguin), 1980, p. 240).
3. The Politburo, in the late Soviet period, approved the communiqué of the Central Electoral Commission before the elections had taken place (see Izvestiya, 13 July 1992, p. 3). Brecht had suggested in 'The Solution' that rather than dissolve the government after the uprising of 17 June 1953 it would have been 'simpler ... if the government dissolved the people and elected another' (Alan Bold (ed.), The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse (Harmondsworth, Penguin), 1980, p. 240).
4. Egor Ligachev, Zagadka Gorbacheva (Novosibirsk, Interbuk, 1992), p. 75. Gorbachev himself saw the 1989 elections as a 'major step in ... the further democratisation of society'. Others were less sanguine: Yurii Solov'ev, for instance, thought they had shown that a 'struggle for power' was in progress, and Anatolii Luk'yanov thought measures should be taken against Memorial and Pamyat', which were 'close to anti-Soviet organisations' (Politburo minutes, 28 March 1989, Chernyaev papers, Gorbachev Foundation, Moscow). For a full discussion see Stephen White, 'The Soviet elections of 1989: from acclamation to limited choice', Coexistence, 28, 4, December 1991, pp. 513-539.
5. Egor Ligachev, Zagadka Gorbacheva (Novosibirsk, Interbuk, 1992), p. 75. Gorbachev himself saw the 1989 elections as a 'major step in ... the further democratisation of society'. Others were less sanguine: Yurii Solov'ev, for instance, thought they had shown that a 'struggle for power' was in progress, and Anatolii Luk'yanov thought measures should be taken against Memorial and Pamyat', which were 'close to anti-Soviet organisations' (Politburo minutes, 28 March 1989, Chernyaev papers, Gorbachev Foundation, Moscow). For a full discussion see Stephen White, 'The Soviet elections of 1989: from acclamation to limited choice', Coexistence, 28, 4, December 1991, pp. 513-539.
6. On the loss of life see Izvestiya, 28 December 1993, p. 1 (a further 878 were wounded). For a more detailed if somewhat 'presidentialist' account see N. L. Zheleznova et al., (eds), Moskva. Osen'-93. Khronika protivostoyaniya (Moscow, Respublika, 1994).
7. On the loss of life see Izvestiya, 28 December 1993, p. 1 (a further 878 were wounded). For a more detailed if somewhat 'presidentialist' account see N. L. Zheleznova et al., (eds), Moskva. Osen'-93. Khronika protivostoyaniya (Moscow, Respublika, 1994).
8. On the December 1993 elections see Stephen White, Richard Rose & Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1997), chapters 6 and 7. See also Richard Sakwa, 'The Russian elections of December 1993', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 2, March 1995, pp. 195-227; Matthew Wyman et al., 'Public opinion, parties and voters in the December 1993 Russian elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 4, June 1995, pp. 591-614, and Peter Lentini (ed.) Elections and Political Order in Russia (Budapest, Central European University Press, 1995).
9. On the December 1993 elections see Stephen White, Richard Rose & Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1997), chapters 6 and 7. See also Richard Sakwa, 'The Russian elections of December 1993', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 2, March 1995, pp. 195-227; Matthew Wyman et al., 'Public opinion, parties and voters in the December 1993 Russian elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 4, June 1995, pp. 591-614, and Peter Lentini (ed.) Elections and Political Order in Russia (Budapest, Central European University Press, 1995).
10. On the December 1993 elections see Stephen White, Richard Rose & Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1997), chapters 6 and 7. See also Richard Sakwa, 'The Russian elections of December 1993', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 2, March 1995, pp. 195-227; Matthew Wyman et al., 'Public opinion, parties and voters in the December 1993 Russian elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 4, June 1995, pp. 591-614, and Peter Lentini (ed.) Elections and Political Order in Russia (Budapest, Central European University Press, 1995).
11. On the December 1993 elections see Stephen White, Richard Rose & Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1997), chapters 6 and 7. See also Richard Sakwa, 'The Russian elections of December 1993', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 2, March 1995, pp. 195-227; Matthew Wyman et al., 'Public opinion, parties and voters in the December 1993 Russian elections', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 4, June 1995, pp. 591-614, and Peter Lentini (ed.) Elections and Political Order in Russia (Budapest, Central European University Press, 1995).
12. Vechernyaya Moskva, 13 December 1993, p. 1; Izvestiya, 15 December 1993, p. 2.
13. Vechernyaya Moskva, 13 December 1993, p. 1; Izvestiya, 15 December 1993, p. 2.
14. For the law see O vyborakh deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1995); and on the process by which it was adopted, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 November 1995, pp. 1, 5. Legal aspects of the electoral law are considered more fully in S. A. Avak'yan, Vybory '95 v Gosudarstvennuyu Dumu Rossii (Moscow, Assistant, 1995) and A. E. Postnikov, Izbiratel'noe pravo Rossii (Moscow, Infra.M-Norma, 1996).
15. For the law see O vyborakh deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1995); and on the process by which it was adopted, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 November 1995, pp. 1, 5. Legal aspects of the electoral law are considered more fully in S. A. Avak'yan, Vybory '95 v Gosudarstvennuyu Dumu Rossii (Moscow, Assistant, 1995) and A. E. Postnikov, Izbiratel'noe pravo Rossii (Moscow, Infra.M-Norma, 1996).
16. For the law see O vyborakh deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1995); and on the process by which it was adopted, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 November 1995, pp. 1, 5. Legal aspects of the electoral law are considered more fully in S. A. Avak'yan, Vybory '95 v Gosudarstvennuyu Dumu Rossii (Moscow, Assistant, 1995) and A. E. Postnikov, Izbiratel'noe pravo Rossii (Moscow, Infra.M-Norma, 1996).
17. For the law see O vyborakh deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1995); and on the process by which it was adopted, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 November 1995, pp. 1, 5. Legal aspects of the electoral law are considered more fully in S. A. Avak'yan, Vybory '95 v Gosudarstvennuyu Dumu Rossii (Moscow, Assistant, 1995) and A. E. Postnikov, Izbiratel'noe pravo Rossii (Moscow, Infra.M-Norma, 1996).
18. Voprosy statistiki, 1996, 3, pp. 81-88.
19. Finansovve izvestiya, 1995, 40, p. 1 (the standard of living of 80% had fallen, while the richest 10% earned - or at any rate received - a third of all money incomes).
20. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 29 February 1996, p. 3.
21. Izvestiya, 31 May 1995, p. 9.
22. Izvestiya, 2 February 1996, p. 2 (women could expect to live until 72); an even lower figure of 54 was reported in Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 30, p. 13.
23. Izvestiya, 2 February 1996, p. 2 (women could expect to live until 72); an even lower figure of 54 was reported in Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 30, p. 13.
24. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 11 April 1995, p. 1. The shooting of the third Duma deputy was reported in Izvestiya, 11 February 1995, p. 1.
25. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 11 April 1995, p. 1. The shooting of the third Duma deputy was reported in Izvestiya, 11 February 1995, p. 1.
26. In November 1995, according to VTsIOM, 46.7% rated the material position of their family as 'bad' or 'very bad' (for about the same proportion it was 'average'); 57.1% thought the situation in Russia as a whole was 'tense' and a further 28.9% thought it was 'critical' or 'explosive'; and 15.6% expected the country's economic position to improve, but 52.9% thought it would worsen (Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1996, 1, pp. 57, 59).
27. See A. G. Beloborodov et al., Vybory deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy. 1995. Elektoral'naya statistika (Moscow, Ves' mir, 1996), p. 11. The possibility of a 'world record' was suggested in Segodnya, 18 August 1995, p. 2.
28. See A. G. Beloborodov et al., Vybory deputatov Gosudarstvennoi Dumy. 1995. Elektoral'naya statistika (Moscow, Ves' mir, 1996), p. 11. The possibility of a 'world record' was suggested in Segodnya, 18 August 1995, p. 2.
29. Izvestiya, 24 October 1995, p. 2. The Central Electoral Commission later reported that 111 of the 273 bodies or associations that were entitled to do so had exercised their right to nominate candidates; 51 presented lists of signatures in support of their registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 11).
30. Izvestiya, 24 October 1995, p. 2. The Central Electoral Commission later reported that 111 of the 273 bodies or associations that were entitled to do so had exercised their right to nominate candidates; 51 presented lists of signatures in support of their registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 11).
31. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 154.
32. Kommersant'-daily, 29 November 1995, p. 3. Eight electoral alliances were refused registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 78); Derzhava and Yabloko were initially denied registration, but later allowed to do so after the Supreme Court had intervened on their behalf (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 2 November 1995, pp. 5, 6; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 5 November 1995, p. 1).
33. Kommersant'-daily, 29 November 1995, p. 3. Eight electoral alliances were refused registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 78); Derzhava and Yabloko were initially denied registration, but later allowed to do so after the Supreme Court had intervened on their behalf (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 2 November 1995, pp. 5, 6; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 5 November 1995, p. 1).
34. Kommersant'-daily, 29 November 1995, p. 3. Eight electoral alliances were refused registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 78); Derzhava and Yabloko were initially denied registration, but later allowed to do so after the Supreme Court had intervened on their behalf (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 2 November 1995, pp. 5, 6; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 5 November 1995, p. 1).
35. Kommersant'-daily, 29 November 1995, p. 3. Eight electoral alliances were refused registration (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 78); Derzhava and Yabloko were initially denied registration, but later allowed to do so after the Supreme Court had intervened on their behalf (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 2 November 1995, pp. 5, 6; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 5 November 1995, p. 1).
36. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 11.
37. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
38. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
39. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
40. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
41. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
42. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
43. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
44. Any classification is necessarily arbitrary. The fourfold scheme that is employed in our discussion is based upon ibid., p. 242. Five separate groups were identified by the Financial Times, 11 December 1995, p. 2; Vladimir Pribylovsky, 43 linii spektra: Kratkoe opisanie vsekh predvybornykh blokov (Moscow. Panorama, 1995) identifies seven. See also Michael McFaul & Nikolai Petrov (eds), Previewing Russia's 1995 Parliamentary Elections (Washington, DC, and Moscow, Carnegie Endowment, 1995), which identifies five blocs and five 'special interest groups'; Sergei Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya v Rossii v preddverii parlamentskikh vyoborov 1995 goda', in A. I. Ioffe (ed.), Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil Rossii (Moscow, Komtekh, 1995), pp. 62-91; and White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, Chapter 10, on which we have drawn for this part of the discussion. The Central Electoral Commission produced a guide to all the electoral associations and blocs: Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya, izbiratel'nye bloki na vyborakh-95 (Prilozhenie k zhumalu Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995); see also Politicheskie partii Rossii (Moscow, Fond prava, 1995).
45. See Izvestiya, 28 October 1995, p. 5.
46. Yavlinsky set out his views in Izvestiya, 12 July 1995, p. 2, and 13 July 1995, p. 2.
47. See Deklaratsiya obshchestvennogo dvizheniya "Yabloko" (Moscow, Yabloko, September 1995); their political platform and economic programme were included in Reformy dlya bol'shinstva (Moscow, Yabloko, 1995) There is a further discussion in V. Ya. Gel'man, ' "Yabloko": opyt politcheskoi al'ternativy', Kentavr, 1995, 6, pp. 43-57, and in Izvestiya, 23 September 1995, p. 4.
48. See Deklaratsiya obshchestvennogo dvizheniya "Yabloko" (Moscow, Yabloko, September 1995); their political platform and economic programme were included in Reformy dlya bol'shinstva (Moscow, Yabloko, 1995) There is a further discussion in V. Ya. Gel'man, ' "Yabloko": opyt politcheskoi al'ternativy', Kentavr, 1995, 6, pp. 43-57, and in Izvestiya, 23 September 1995, p. 4.
49. See Deklaratsiya obshchestvennogo dvizheniya "Yabloko" (Moscow, Yabloko, September 1995); their political platform and economic programme were included in Reformy dlya bol'shinstva (Moscow, Yabloko, 1995) There is a further discussion in V. Ya. Gel'man, ' "Yabloko": opyt politcheskoi al'ternativy', Kentavr, 1995, 6, pp. 43-57, and in Izvestiya, 23 September 1995, p. 4.
50. See Deklaratsiya obshchestvennogo dvizheniya "Yabloko" (Moscow, Yabloko, September 1995); their political platform and economic programme were included in Reformy dlya bol'shinstva (Moscow, Yabloko, 1995) There is a further discussion in V. Ya. Gel'man, ' "Yabloko": opyt politcheskoi al'ternativy', Kentavr, 1995, 6, pp. 43-57, and in Izvestiya, 23 September 1995, p. 4.
51. See Liberal'nyi plan dlya Rossii, 2nd ed. (Moscow, Vpered, Rossiya, 1995).
52. Pribylovsky, 43 linii, p. 8.
53. See Platforma izbiralel'nogo ob"edineniya "Pamfilova-Gurov-Lysenko" (Respublikanskaya partiya Rossiiskoi Federatsii) (Moscow, Institut sovremennoi politiki, 1995).
54. Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 14, p. 16.
55. Svyatoslav Fedorov, Mne obidno, chto lyudi, kotorym ya vernul zrenie, vidyat razvalennuyu stranu (Moscow, Partiya samoupravleniya trudyashchikhsya, 1995), originally an interview in Pravda, 10 March 1995. See more generally Fedorov, Put' istseleniya (Moscow, Fedorov, 1995).
56. Svyatoslav Fedorov, Mne obidno, chto lyudi, kotorym ya vernul zrenie, vidyat razvalennuyu stranu (Moscow, Partiya samoupravleniya trudyashchikhsya, 1995), originally an interview in Pravda, 10 March 1995. See more generally Fedorov, Put' istseleniya (Moscow, Fedorov, 1995).
57. Svyatoslav Fedorov, Mne obidno, chto lyudi, kotorym ya vernul zrenie, vidyat razvalennuyu stranu (Moscow, Partiya samoupravleniya trudyashchikhsya, 1995), originally an interview in Pravda, 10 March 1995. See more generally Fedorov, Put' istseleniya (Moscow, Fedorov, 1995).
58. See Pribylovsky, 43 linii, pp. 9-10; and Izvestiya, 25 November 1995, p. 4.
59. See Pribylovsky, 43 linii, pp. 9-10; and Izvestiya, 25 November 1995, p. 4.
60. Predvybornaya platforma Vserossiistogo obshchestvenno-politicheskogo dvizheniya "Nash dom-Rossiya". Ulverzhdena Vtorytn s"ezdom Dvizheniya 12 avgusta 1995 g. (Moscow, NDR, 1995) (the misprint in the original has been corrected).
61. Pribylovsky, 43 linii, p. 10.
62. Izvestiya, 5 November 1995, p. 4.
63. Sovetskaya Rossiya, 11 November 1995, p. 4.
64. See Programmant politicheskogo dvizheniya "Zhenshchiny Rossii" (Moscow, Zhenshchiny Rossii, 1995). For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 5 November 1995, p. 4; and Lakhova's autobiography, Moi put' v politiku (Moscow, Aurika, 1995).
65. See Programmant politicheskogo dvizheniya "Zhenshchiny Rossii" (Moscow, Zhenshchiny Rossii, 1995). For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 5 November 1995, p. 4; and Lakhova's autobiography, Moi put' v politiku (Moscow, Aurika, 1995).
66. See Programmant politicheskogo dvizheniya "Zhenshchiny Rossii" (Moscow, Zhenshchiny Rossii, 1995). For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 5 November 1995, p. 4; and Lakhova's autobiography, Moi put' v politiku (Moscow, Aurika, 1995).
67. Predvybornava platforma (bloka Ivana Rybkina) (Moscow, Realisty, 1995).
68. Based on the Union's electoral flyers, and (for the 'second edition') Markov, 'Izbiratel'nye ob"edineniya', p. 89.
69. Arguments i fakty, 1995, 36, p. 2; Kommersant'-daily, 7 July 1995, p. 3, placed him first among a list of possible presidential candidates.
70. Arguments i fakty, 1995, 36, p. 2; Kommersant'-daily, 7 July 1995, p. 3, placed him first among a list of possible presidential candidates.
71. Financial Times, 3 June 1995, p. 8.
72. See Aleksandr Lebed', Za derzhavu obidno ... (Moscow, Moskovskaya pravda, 1995), pp. 423 (church, army and people) and 432 (for his reference to 'political chatter about reforms, democracy [and] human rights').
73. For the KRO programme see Bud'te s nanti (Moscow, Kongress russkikh obshchin, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 32-39. KRO's 'Appeal to voters' was in Trud, 11 November 1995, p. 2.
74. For the KRO programme see Bud'te s nanti (Moscow, Kongress russkikh obshchin, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 32-39. KRO's 'Appeal to voters' was in Trud, 11 November 1995, p. 2.
75. For the KRO programme see Bud'te s nanti (Moscow, Kongress russkikh obshchin, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 32-39. KRO's 'Appeal to voters' was in Trud, 11 November 1995, p. 2.
76. Obshchaya gazeta, 29 June 1995, p. 8. For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 16 September 1995, p. 4.
77. Obshchaya gazeta, 29 June 1995, p. 8. For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 16 September 1995, p. 4.
78. See Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Programmnyi manifest Liberal'noi-Demokraticheskoi partii Rossii (Moscow, LDPR, 1995). For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 17 October 1995, p. 4.
79. See Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Programmnyi manifest Liberal'noi-Demokraticheskoi partii Rossii (Moscow, LDPR, 1995). For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 17 October 1995, p. 4.
80. The Liberal Democrats' support in the armed forces was reported in, for instance, Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 38, p. 2.
81. For a general discussion see Richard Sakwa, The Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Electoral Process (Glasgow, University of Strathclyde Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1996); Izvestiya, 9 September 1996, p. 4; and Joan Urban & Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads: Leninism, fascism or social democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1997).
82. For a general discussion see Richard Sakwa, The Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Electoral Process (Glasgow, University of Strathclyde Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1996); Izvestiya, 9 September 1996, p. 4; and Joan Urban & Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads: Leninism, fascism or social democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1997).
83. For a general discussion see Richard Sakwa, The Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Electoral Process (Glasgow, University of Strathclyde Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1996); Izvestiya, 9 September 1996, p. 4; and Joan Urban & Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads: Leninism, fascism or social democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1997).
84. See Za nashu sovetskuyu rodinu! Predvybornaya platforma Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995); it also appeared in Sovetskaya Rossiya, 31 August 1995, p. 3, and Dialog, 1995, 10, pp. 3-9. The party programme adopted in January 1995 appeared in III S"ezd Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii 21-22 yanvarya 1995 goda (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995), pp. 95-118.
85. See Za nashu sovetskuyu rodinu! Predvybornaya platforma Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995); it also appeared in Sovetskaya Rossiya, 31 August 1995, p. 3, and Dialog, 1995, 10, pp. 3-9. The party programme adopted in January 1995 appeared in III S"ezd Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii 21-22 yanvarya 1995 goda (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995), pp. 95-118.
86. See Za nashu sovetskuyu rodinu! Predvybornaya platforma Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995); it also appeared in Sovetskaya Rossiya, 31 August 1995, p. 3, and Dialog, 1995, 10, pp. 3-9. The party programme adopted in January 1995 appeared in III S"ezd Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii 21-22 yanvarya 1995 goda (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995), pp. 95-118.
87. See Za nashu sovetskuyu rodinu! Predvybornaya platforma Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995); it also appeared in Sovetskaya Rossiya, 31 August 1995, p. 3, and Dialog, 1995, 10, pp. 3-9. The party programme adopted in January 1995 appeared in III S"ezd Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii 21-22 yanvarya 1995 goda (Moscow, Informpechat', 1995), pp. 95-118.
88. See Programma. Ustav Agrarnoi partii Rossii (Moscow. APR, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 13-18. For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 30 September 1995, p. 4.
89. See Programma. Ustav Agrarnoi partii Rossii (Moscow. APR, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 13-18. For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 30 September 1995, p. 4.
90. See Programma. Ustav Agrarnoi partii Rossii (Moscow. APR, 1995); it also appeared in Dialog, 1995, 11-12, pp. 13-18. For a further discussion see Izvestiya, 30 September 1995, p. 4.
91. Predvybornaya platforma Izbiratel'nogo bloka "Vlast'-narodu" (Moscow, Vlast' narodu, 1995); the pre-election platform also appeared in Pravda, 12 September 1995, p. 2.
92. Predvybornaya platforma Izbiratel'nogo bloka "Vlast'-narodu" (Moscow, Vlast' narodu, 1995); the pre-election platform also appeared in Pravda, 12 September 1995, p. 2.
93. These comments are based on the party's election flyers; for its programme see Predvybornaya pozitsiya izbiratel'nogo bloka "Kommunisty-Trudovava Rossiya-Za Sovetskii Soyuz" (mimeo, 1995) and Pravda, 25 November 1995, p. 2.
94. These comments are based on the party's election flyers; for its programme see Predvybornaya pozitsiya izbiratel'nogo bloka "Kommunisty-Trudovava Rossiya-Za Sovetskii Soyuz" (mimeo, 1995) and Pravda, 25 November 1995, p. 2.
95. Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federalsii, 1995, 6, pp. 78-90.
96. ibid. 1995, 1, pp. 50-65.
97. Izvestiya, 1 August 1995, p. 2.
98. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring the Media Coverage of the 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections: Final Report, 15 February 1996 (Dusseldorf, EIM, 1996), pp. 19-20, 32-33. Other analyses of campaign spending appeared in Finansovye izvestiya, 18 January 1996, p. 6; Segodnya, 23 January 1996, pp. 7, 10; and Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 65-70, reported in Table 1. The Central Electoral Commission's acknowledgement is in ibid., p. 56.
99. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring the Media Coverage of the 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections: Final Report, 15 February 1996 (Dusseldorf, EIM, 1996), pp. 19-20, 32-33. Other analyses of campaign spending appeared in Finansovye izvestiya, 18 January 1996, p. 6; Segodnya, 23 January 1996, pp. 7, 10; and Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 65-70, reported in Table 1. The Central Electoral Commission's acknowledgement is in ibid., p. 56.
100. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring the Media Coverage of the 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections: Final Report, 15 February 1996 (Dusseldorf, EIM, 1996), pp. 19-20, 32-33. Other analyses of campaign spending appeared in Finansovye izvestiya, 18 January 1996, p. 6; Segodnya, 23 January 1996, pp. 7, 10; and Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 65-70, reported in Table 1. The Central Electoral Commission's acknowledgement is in ibid., p. 56.
101. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring the Media Coverage of the 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections: Final Report, 15 February 1996 (Dusseldorf, EIM, 1996), pp. 19-20, 32-33. Other analyses of campaign spending appeared in Finansovye izvestiya, 18 January 1996, p. 6; Segodnya, 23 January 1996, pp. 7, 10; and Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 65-70, reported in Table 1. The Central Electoral Commission's acknowledgement is in ibid., p. 56.
102. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring the Media Coverage of the 1995 Russian Parliamentary Elections: Final Report, 15 February 1996 (Dusseldorf, EIM, 1996), pp. 19-20, 32-33. Other analyses of campaign spending appeared in Finansovye izvestiya, 18 January 1996, p. 6; Segodnya, 23 January 1996, pp. 7, 10; and Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 65-70, reported in Table 1. The Central Electoral Commission's acknowledgement is in ibid., p. 56.
103. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 55-56 (television accounted for 85% of all election advertising).
104. European Institute for the Media, Monitoring, pp. 32-35 and 40 (radio).
105. Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 50, p. 6.
106. Ibid., p. 11.
107. This part of the discussion is based upon our collection of election posters, and upon the display of electoral materials organised by the State Public Historical Library in Moscow during the campaign period.
108. There were, for instance, 'almost 130' Communist-oriented local newspapers: Izvestiya, 12 April 1996, p. 5.
109. The results of the survey were reported by NTV on 18 December; the survey was conducted by the Public Opinion Foundation, but the number of respondents was not provided.
110. Financial Times, 1 December 1995, p. 6.
111. The Times, 16 December 1995, p. 6.
112. Financial Times, 1 December 1995, p. 6. The parties' commercials were surveyed in Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 48, p. 5.
113. Financial Times, 1 December 1995, p. 6. The parties' commercials were surveyed in Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 48, p. 5.
114. This passage is based on an analysis of free time on ORT and RTR taped during the campaign.
115. These responses are from a survey of 1568 people across Russia conducted for the authors by VTsIOM between 20 and 26 December 1995; percentages are based on the 1161 people who claimed to have voted in the survey. Respondents were allowed to pick more than one response to the question.
116. The text of the discussion appeared in Argumenty i fakty, 1996, 7, p. 3.
117. E. G. Andryushchenko, A. V. Dmitriev & Zh. T. Toshchenko, Oprosy i vybory 1995 goda', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1996, 6, pp. 3-18, at p. 13. See also Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 9, pp. 83-88.
118. E. G. Andryushchenko, A. V. Dmitriev & Zh. T. Toshchenko, Oprosy i vybory 1995 goda', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1996, 6, pp. 3-18, at p. 13. See also Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 9, pp. 83-88.
119. USIA Opinion Analysis, 11 December 1995, pp. 1, 4. In a VTsIOM poll, 54% of urban workers believed the elections would 'have no impact on subsequent events' (Segodnya, 11 August 1995, p. 3; similar findings were reported in Rossiiskava gazela, 21 September 1995, p. 5).
120. USIA Opinion Analysis, 11 December 1995, pp. 1, 4. In a VTsIOM poll, 54% of urban workers believed the elections would 'have no impact on subsequent events' (Segodnya, 11 August 1995, p. 3; similar findings were reported in Rossiiskava gazela, 21 September 1995, p. 5).
121. USIA Opinion Analysis, 11 December 1995, pp. 1, 4. In a VTsIOM poll, 54% of urban workers believed the elections would 'have no impact on subsequent events' (Segodnya, 11 August 1995, p. 3; similar findings were reported in Rossiiskava gazela, 21 September 1995, p. 5).
122. USIA Opinion Analysis, 11 December 1995, pp. 1-2.
123. Eltsin's television appeal was reprinted in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 16 December 1995, pp. 1, 3.
124. Moskovskie novosti, 1995, 19, p. 8.
125. Rossiya, 1993, 35, p. 3.
126. White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, p. 228 (data recalculated). On disproportionality more generally, see for instance Arend Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994), chapter 3.
127. White, Rose & McAllister, How Russia Votes, p. 228 (data recalculated). On disproportionality more generally, see for instance Arend Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994), chapter 3.
128. We draw at this point upon two polls of adult Russians conducted by the All-Russian Centre for Public Opinion Research (VTsIOM) for the authors. The first was carried out in early December, immediately before the election, and the second in late December, immediately after it had taken place. The sample sizes were respectively n= 1606 and n= 1568. Interviews were conducted in respondents' homes, and the results were weighted for age, education, rurality and gender.
129. See for instance Ioffe (ed.) Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil; Yuri V. Medvedkov et al., 'The December 1993 Russian elections: geographical patterns and contextual factors', Russian Review, 55, 1, January 1996, pp. 80-98; and Ralph S. Clem & Peter R. Craumer, 'The geography of the Russian 1995 parliamentary election: continuity, change, and correlates', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 10, December 1995, pp. 459-475.
130. See for instance Ioffe (ed.) Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil; Yuri V. Medvedkov et al., 'The December 1993 Russian elections: geographical patterns and contextual factors', Russian Review, 55, 1, January 1996, pp. 80-98; and Ralph S. Clem & Peter R. Craumer, 'The geography of the Russian 1995 parliamentary election: continuity, change, and correlates', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 10, December 1995, pp. 459-475.
131. See for instance Ioffe (ed.) Analiz elektorata politicheskikh sil; Yuri V. Medvedkov et al., 'The December 1993 Russian elections: geographical patterns and contextual factors', Russian Review, 55, 1, January 1996, pp. 80-98; and Ralph S. Clem & Peter R. Craumer, 'The geography of the Russian 1995 parliamentary election: continuity, change, and correlates', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 10, December 1995, pp. 459-475.
132. We draw at this point on our post-election survey.
133. Argumenty i fakty, 1995, 50, p. 2.
134. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 61.
135. See European Parliament, Delegation for Relations with Russia, Report on the Observation of the Legislative Elections in Russia of 17 December 1995 (Brussels, European Parliament, 29 January 1996), p. 3. Annex I appeared on 31 January 1996, and Annex II on 29 January 1996.
136. Trud, 19 December 1995, p. 2; the first full publication of results was in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 January 1996.
137. Trud, 19 December 1995, p. 2; the first full publication of results was in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 January 1996.
138. European Parliament Report, pp. 7-8.
139. OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Report on the Elections to the State Duma in the Russian Federation 17 December 1995 (Copenhagen, OSCE, 1996), Annex 1.
140. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 64; and Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Report on the Russian Duma Elections of December 1995: Tver, Tverskaya ablast, and Moscow ablast (Washington, DC, CSCE, 1996), p. 12.
141. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 64; and Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Report on the Russian Duma Elections of December 1995: Tver, Tverskaya ablast, and Moscow ablast (Washington, DC, CSCE, 1996), p. 12.
142. European Parliament Report, p. 7.
143. Ibid..
144. Ibid., Annex 1, pp. 8-9.
145. Ibid., p. 19.
146. OSCE Report, pp. 10, 18, 17.
147. CSCE Report, p. 9 (in relation to Tver').
148. Izvestiya, 23 December 1995, p. 4.
149. Moskovskii komsomolets, 29 December 1995, p. 1.
150. On the purchase of signatures as a 'new form of business' see for instance Izvestiya, 18 October 1995, p. 2. In one Moscow constituency more than half the candidates received fewer votes than the number of signatures they had collected for their nomination: Izvestiya, 1 February 1996, p. 5.
151. On the purchase of signatures as a 'new form of business' see for instance Izvestiya, 18 October 1995, p. 2. In one Moscow constituency more than half the candidates received fewer votes than the number of signatures they had collected for their nomination: Izvestiya, 1 February 1996, p. 5.
152. Izvestiya, 1 February 1996, p. 5 (which noted other opportunities to falsify the results). For the CEC ruling see Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995, 12, pp. 31-36.
153. Izvestiya, 1 February 1996, p. 5 (which noted other opportunities to falsify the results). For the CEC ruling see Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1995, 12, pp. 31-36.
154. Izvestiya, 11 July 1995, p. 1. The Central Electoral Commission itself identified some discrepancies: local government bodies recorded an electorate of 104 978 098 on 1 June 1995, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicated that there were 308 534 voters resident elsewhere. The electoral commissions themselves recorded a total electorate of 107 496 856, with the difference largely accounted for by (i) the inclusion of short-term residents in hospitals, sanatoria and the like, and (ii) immigration from other CIS countries (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 46).
155. Izvestiya, 11 July 1995, p. 1. The Central Electoral Commission itself identified some discrepancies: local government bodies recorded an electorate of 104 978 098 on 1 June 1995, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicated that there were 308 534 voters resident elsewhere. The electoral commissions themselves recorded a total electorate of 107 496 856, with the difference largely accounted for by (i) the inclusion of short-term residents in hospitals, sanatoria and the like, and (ii) immigration from other CIS countries (Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 46).
156. See Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 7, pp. 32-35.
157. Izvestiya, 30 March 1996, p. 2. The case was eventually handed over to the local procuracy; it was identified as one in which there had been particular difficulties by CEC chairman Nikolai Ryabov (Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 7, p. 86, and 1996, 9, p. 72).
158. Izvestiya, 30 March 1996, p. 2. The case was eventually handed over to the local procuracy; it was identified as one in which there had been particular difficulties by CEC chairman Nikolai Ryabov (Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 7, p. 86, and 1996, 9, p. 72).
159. Izvestiya, 30 March 1996, p. 2. The case was eventually handed over to the local procuracy; it was identified as one in which there had been particular difficulties by CEC chairman Nikolai Ryabov (Vestnik Tsentral'noi izbiratel'noi komissii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 1996, 7, p. 86, and 1996, 9, p. 72).
160. Andryushchenko et al., Oprosy', p. 16.
161. Polis, 1996, 2, p. 95.
162. Izvestiya, 21 December 1995, p. 2.
163. Izvestiva, 18 November 1995, p. 2.
164. OSCE Report, p. 20.
165. Izvestiya, 23 December 1995, p. 1 (at this time early returns indicated that more than half of those who had voted for party lists would be unrepresented).
166. OSCE Report, p. 20.
167. Izvestiya, 18 October 1995, p. 2.
168. European Parliament Report, pp. 4-5, 7-8.
169. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 262-263; the 'State automated system "Elections" ' is outlined in ibid., pp. 18-20. The further reform of the electoral system is considered in Catherine Barnes, 'Federal elections in Russia: the necessity of systemic reforms', Demokratizatsiya, 4, 3, Summer 1996, pp. 389-407.
170. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 262-263; the 'State automated system "Elections" ' is outlined in ibid., pp. 18-20. The further reform of the electoral system is considered in Catherine Barnes, 'Federal elections in Russia: the necessity of systemic reforms', Demokratizatsiya, 4, 3, Summer 1996, pp. 389-407.
171. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 262-263; the 'State automated system "Elections" ' is outlined in ibid., pp. 18-20. The further reform of the electoral system is considered in Catherine Barnes, 'Federal elections in Russia: the necessity of systemic reforms', Demokratizatsiya, 4, 3, Summer 1996, pp. 389-407.
172. Gennadii Zyuganov, Pravda, 20 December 1995, p. 1.
173. Sovetskaya Rossiya, 21 December 1995, p. 1.
174. Moskovskaya pravda, 21 December 1995, p. 1; Segodnya, 20 December 1995, p. 1.
175. Moskovskaya pravda, 21 December 1995, p. 1; Segodnya, 20 December 1995, p. 1.
176. Sergei Filatov, Izvestiya, 27 January 1996, p. 4; Georgii Satarov, Rossiiskie vesti, 21 December 1995, p. 1.
177. Sergei Filatov, Izvestiya, 27 January 1996, p. 4; Georgii Satarov, Rossiiskie vesti, 21 December 1995, p. 1.
178. Such as the Kamaz director Vladimir Kadannikov, appointed a first deputy prime minister in January 1996.
179. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, p. 263.
180. Izvestiya, 6 January 1996, p. 2 (the first three names on the Our Home list all withdrew; so did Aman-Gel'dy Tuleev from the CPRF list).
181. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 205-207. There was also a newly founded 'Russian regions' group. Party identities more generally are considered in Richard Rose, Evgeny Tikhomirov & William Mishler, 'Understanding multi-party choice: the 1995 Duma election', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 5, July 1997, pp. 799-823.
182. Beloborodov et al., Vybory, pp. 205-207. There was also a newly founded 'Russian regions' group. Party identities more generally are considered in Richard Rose, Evgeny Tikhomirov & William Mishler, 'Understanding multi-party choice: the 1995 Duma election', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 5, July 1997, pp. 799-823.
183. CSCE Report, p. 5.
184. Izvestiya, 17 February 1996, p. 2.
185. European Parliament Report, p. 8.