Computational Phantoms for Radiation Dosimetry: A 40-Year History of Evolution

Handbook of Anatomical Models for Radiation Dosimetry

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 3-42

  Xu, X George ^a  

^a RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85134000266     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/EBK1420059793-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (143)

1. Kramer, R. et al. The calculation of dose from external photon exposures using reference human phantoms and Monte Carlo methods: Part I. The male (ADAM) and female (EVA) adult mathematical phantoms, GSF-Report S-885, Neuherberg-Muenchen: Institut fuer Strahlenschutz, GSF-Forschungszentrum fuer Umwelt und Gesundheit, 1982.
2. Park, S., Lee, J.K., and Lee, C. Development of a Korean adult male computational phantom for internal dosimetry calculation, Radiat Prot Dosim, 121, 257, 2006.
3. Pretorius, P.H. et al. Evaluation of right and left ventricular volume and ejection fraction using a mathematical cardiac torso phantom, J Nucl Med, 38, 1528, 1997.
4. Tsui, B.M.W., Terry, J.A., and Gullberg, G.T. Evaluation of cardiac cone-beam single-photon emission computed-tomography using observer performance experiments and receiver operating characteristic analysis, Invest Radiol, 28, 1101, 1993.
5. Tsui, B.M.W. et al. Quantitative cardiac SPECT reconstruction with reduced image degradation due to patient anatomy, Nucl Sci IEEE Trans, 41, 2838, 1994.
6. Billings, M.P. and Yucker, W.R. The computerized anatomical man CAM model, NASA CR-134043, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1973.
7. Fisher, H.L.J. and Snyder, W.S. Variation of dose delivered by 137Cs as a function of body size from infancy to adulthood, ORNL-4007, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, p. 221, 1966.
8. Fish, H.L.J. and Snyder, W.S. Distribution of dose in the body from a source of gamma rays distributed uniformly in an organ, ORNL-4168, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, p. 245, 1967.
9. Snyder, W.S. et al. Estimates of absorbed fractions for monoenergetic photon sources uniformly distributed in various organs of a heterogeneous phantom, J Nucl Med, 10 (Suppl. 3), 7, 1969.
10. Snyder, W.S., Ford, M.R., and Warner, G.G. MIRD Pamphlet No. 5, Revised Estimates of specific absorbed fractions for monoenergetic photon sources uniformly distributed in various organs of a heterogeneous phantom, New York: Society of Nuclear Medicine, 1978.
11. Cristy, M. Mathematical phantoms representing children of various ages for use in estimates of internal dose, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Rep., NUREG/CR-1159, Also Oak Ridge National Laboratory Rep., ORNL/NUREG/TM-367, 1980.
12. Cristy, M. and Eckerman, K.F. Specific absorbed fractions of energy at various ages from internal photon sources I: Methods, ORNL/TM-8381/V1, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1987.
13. Stabin, M.G. et al. Mathematical models and specific absorbed fractions of photon energy in the nonpregnant adult female and at the end of each trimester of pregnancy, ORNL/TM-12907, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1995.
14. Chen, J. Mathematical models of the embryo and fetus for use in radiological protection, Health Phys, 86, 285, 2004.
15. Mason, P.A. et al. Effects of frequency, permittivity, and voxel size on predicted specific absorption rate values in biological tissue during electromagnetic-field exposure, IEEE Trans Microw Theory Tech, 48, 2050, 2000.
16. Wang, J.Q. et al. Computation with a parallel FDTD system of human-body effect on electromagnetic absorption for portable telephones, IEEE Trans Microw Theory Tech, 52, 53, 2004.
17. Zhang, B.Q. et al. CNMAN: A Chinese adult male voxel phantom constructed from color photographs of a visible anatomical data set, Radiat Prot Dosim, 124, 130, 2007.
18. Gjonaj, E. et al. High-resolution human anatomy models for advanced electromagnetic field computations, IEEE Trans Magnet, 38, 357, 2002.
19. Mazzurana, M. et al. A semi-automatic method for developing an anthropomorphic numerical model of dielectric anatomy by MRI, Phys Med Biol, 48, 3157, 2003.
20. Kramer, R. et al. All about MAX: A male adult voxel phantom for Monte Carlo calculations in radiation protection dosimetry, Phys Med Biol, 48, 1239, 2003.
21. Kramer, R. et al. All about FAX: A female adult voXel phantom for Monte Carlo calculation in radiation protection dosimetry, Phys Med Biol, 49, 5203, 2004.
22. Kramer, R. et al. MAX06 and FAX06: Update of two adult human phantoms for radiation protection dosimetry, Phys Med Biol, 51, 3331, 2006.
23. Caon, M., Bibbo, G., and Pattison, J. An EGS4-ready tomographic computational model of a 14-year-old female torso for calculating organ doses from CT examinations, Phys Med Biol, 44, 2213, 1999.
24. Caon, M., Bibbo, G., and Pattison, J. Monte Carlo calculated effective dose to teenage girls from computed tomography examinations, Radiat Prot Dosim, 90, 445, 2000.
25. Cech, R., Leitgeb, N., and Pediaditis, M. Fetal exposure to low frequency electric and magnetic fields, Phys Med Biol, 52, 879, 2007.
26. Cech, R., Leitgeb, N., and Pediaditis, M. Current densities in a pregnant woman model induced by simultaneous ELF electric and magnetic field exposure, Phys Med Biol, 53, 177, 2008.
27. Williams, G. et al. The calculation of dose from external photon exposures using reference and realistic human phantoms and Monte Carlo methods, Phys Med Biol, 31, 449, 1986.
28. Zankl, M. et al. The construction of computer tomographic phantoms and their application in radiology and radiation protection, Radiat Environ Biophys, 27, 153, 1988.
29. Fill, U.A. et al. Adult female voxel models of different stature and photon conversion coefficients for radiation protection, Health Phys, 86, 253, 2004.
30. Petoussi-Henss, N. et al. The GSF family of voxel phantoms, Phys Med Biol, 47, 89, 2002.
31. Zankl, M. et al. Organ dose conversion coefficients for external photon irradiation of male and female voxel models, Phys Med Biol, 47, 2367, 2002.
32. Zankl, M. et al. GSF male and female adult voxel models representing ICRP Reference Man-The present status, in Proceedings of the Monte Carlo Method: Versatility Unbounded in a Dynamic Computing World, Chattanooga, TN: American Nuclear Society, A Grange Park, 2005.
33. Becker, J. et al. About Katja, a virtual human phantom of a 24-week pregnant woman, in Proceedings of the 7th International Scientific Conference SATERRA “Human and Environment, " Mittweida, Germany, 2007.
34. Schlattl, H., Zankl, M., and Petoussi-Henss, N. Organ dose conversion coefficients for voxel models of the reference male and female from idealized photon exposures, Phys Med Biol, 52, 2123, 2007.
35. International Commission of Radiological Protection (ICRP). Adult Reference Computational Phantoms. ICRP publication 110, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2009.
36. Lee, C., Lee, J., and Lee, C. Korean adult male voxel model KORMAN segmented from magnetic resonance images, Med Phys, 31, 1017, 2004.
37. Lee, C. and Lee, J. Reference Korean human models: Past, present, and future, in The Monte Carlo Method: Versatility Unbounded in a Dynamic Computing World, Chattanooga, TN, April 17-21, 2005.
38. Lee, C. et al. Development of the two Korean adult tomographic computational phantoms for organ dosimetry, Med Phys, 33, 380, 2006.
39. Choi, S.H. et al. Construction of a high-definition ‘Reference Korean’ voxel phantom fro organ and tissue radiation dose calculation, in World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2006.
40. Kim, C.H. et al. HDRK-Man: A whole-body voxel model based on high-resolution color slice images of a Korean adult male cadaver, Phys Med Biol, 53, 4093, 2008.
41. Dimbylow, P.J. The development of realistic voxel phantoms for electromagnetic field dosimetry, in Proceedings of the Workshop on Voxel Phantom Development, Chilton, U.K., 1996.
42. Dimbylow, P.J. FDTD calculations of the whole-body averaged SAR in an anatomically realistic voxel model of the human body from 1 MHz to 1 GHz, Phys Med Biol, 42, 479, 1997.
43. Jones, D.G. A realistic anthropomorphic phantom for calculating organ doses arising from external photon irradiation, Radiat Prot Dosim, 72, 21, 1997.
44. Dimbylow, P. Development of the female voxel phantom, NAOMI, and its application to calculations of induced current densities and electric fields from applied low frequency magnetic and electric fields, Phys Med Biol, 50, 1047, 2005.
45. Dimbylow, P. Resonance behaviour of whole-body averaged specific energy absorption rate (SAR) in the female voxel model, NAOMI, Phys Med Biol, 50, 4053, 2005.
46. Ferrari, P. and Gualdrini, G. An improved MCNP version of the NORMAN voxel phantom for dosimetry studies, Phys Med Biol, 50, 4299, 2005.
47. Dimbylow, P.J. Development of pregnant female, hybrid voxel-mathematical models and their application to the dosimetry of applied magnetic and electric fields at 50 Hz, Phys Med Biol, 51, 2383-2394, 2006.
48. Zhang, G. et al. Organ dose calculations by Monte Carlo modeling of the updated VCH adult male phantom against idealized external proton exposure, Phys Med Biol, 53, 3697, 2008.
49. Zhang, G. et al. The development and application of the visible Chinese human model for Monte Carlo dose calculations, Health Phys, 94, 118, 2008.
50. Zhang, G., Liu, Q., and Luo, Q.M. Monte Carlo simulations for external neutron dosimetry based on the visible Chinese human phantom, Phys Med Biol, 52, 7367, 2008.
51. Available at: http://www.itis.ethz.ch/index/index humanmodels.html.
52. Saito, K. et al. Construction of a computed tomographic phantom for a Japanese male adult and dose calculation system, Radiat Environ Biophys, 40, 69, 2001.
53. Sato, K. et al. Japanese adult male voxel phantom constructed on the basis of CT images, Radiat Prot Dosim, 123, 337, 2007.
54. Sato, K. et al. Development of a voxel phantom of Japanese adult male in upright posture, Radiat Prot Dosim, 127, 205, 2007.
55. Saito, K. et al. Construction of a voxel phantom based on CT data for a Japanese female adult and its use for calculation of organ doses from external electrons, Jpn J Health Phys, 43, 122, 2008.
56. Sato, K. et al. Development of a Japanese adult female voxel phantom, Radiat Environ Biophys, (to be submitted).
57. Lee, C., Nagaoka, T., and Lee, J.K. Implementation of Japanese male and female tomographic phantoms to multi-particle Monte Carlo code for ionizing radiation dosimetry, J Nucl Sci Technol, 43, 937, 2006.
58. Nagaoka, T. et al. Development of realistic high-resolution whole-body voxel models of Japanese adult males and females of average height and weight, and application of models to radio-frequency electromagnetic-field dosimetry, Phys Med Biol, 49, 1, 2004.
59. Nagaoka, T. et al. An anatomically realistic voxel model of the pregnant woman and numerical dosimetry for a whole-body exposure to RF electromagnetic fields, Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2006. EMBS '06. 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE, New York, 2006.
60. Nagaoka, T. et al. An anatomically realistic whole-body pregnant-woman model and specific absorption rates for pregnant-woman exposure to electromagnetic plane waves from 10 MHz to 2 GHz, Phys Med Biol, 52, 6731, 2007.
61. Nagaoka, T., Kunieda, E., and Watanabe, S. Proportion-corrected scaled voxel models for Japanese children and their application to the numerical dosimetry of specific absorption rate for frequencies from 30 MHz to 3 GHz, Phys Med Biol, 53, 6695, 2008.
62. Akkurt, H., Beka, K., and Eckerman, K. VOXMAT: Phantom model with combination of voxel and mathematical geometry, in 53rd Annual Health Physics Society Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, July 13-17, 2008.
63. Xu, X.G., Chao, T.C., and Bozkurt, A. VIP-Man: An image-based whole-body adult male model constructed from color photographs of the Visible Human Project for multi-particle Monte Carlo calculations, Health Phys, 78, 476, 2000.
64. Shi, C. and Xu, X.G. Development of a 30-week-pregnant female tomographic model from computed tomography (CT) images for Monte Carlo organ dose calculations, Med Phys, 31, 2491, 2004.
65. Wang, B., Xu, X.G., and Kim, C.H. A Monte Carlo CT Model of the Rando Phantom, Am Nucl Soc Trans, 90, 473, 2004.
66. Li, J.L. et al. Organ dose conversion coefficients for external photon irradiation using the Chinese Voxel Phantom (CVP), Radiat Prot Dosim, 2008 (submitted).
67. Zeng, Z. et al. Dose assessment for space radiation using a proton differential dose spectrum, J Tsinghua Univ (Sci Technol), 46, 374, 2007.
68. Smans, K. et al. Calculation of organ doses in x-ray examinations of premature babies, Med Phys, 35, 556, 2008.
69. Nipper, J.C., Williams, J.L., and Bolch, W.E. Creation of two tomographic voxel models of paediatric patients in the first year of life, Phys Med Biol, 47, 3143, 2002.
70. Lee, C. et al. The UF series of tomographic computational phantoms of pediatric patients, Med Phys, 32, 3537, 2005.
71. Lee, C. et al. Whole-body voxel phantoms of paediatric patients-UF Series B, Phys Med Biol, 51, 4649, 2006.
72. Sachse, F.B. et al. MEET Man-Models for Simulation of Electromagnetic, Elastomechanic and Thermic Behavior of Man. Erstellung und technische Parameter, Institut für Biomedizinische Technik: Universität Karlsruhe, 1997.
73. Doerfel, H. and Heide, B. Calibration of a phoswich type partial body counter by Monte Carlo simulation of low-energy photon transport, Radiat Prot Dosim, 123, 464, 2007.
74. Tinniswood, A.D., Furse, C.M., and Gandhi, O.P. Power deposition in the head and neck of an anatomically based human body model for plane wave exposures, Phys Med Bio, 43, 2361, 1998.
75. Gibbs, S. and Pujol, J. A Monte Carlo method for patient dosimetry from diagnostic x-ray, Dentomaxillofac Radiol, 11, 25, 1982.
76. Gibbs, S. et al. Radiation doses to sensitive organs from intraoral dental radiography, Dentomaxillofac Radiol, 16, 67-77, 1987.
77. Gibbs, S.J. et al. Patient risk from interproximal radiography, Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod, 58, 347, 1984.
78. Zubal, I.G. et al. Computerized three-dimensional segmented human anatomy, Med Phys, 21, 299, 1994.
79. Dawson, T.W., Caputa, K., and Stuchly, M.A. A comparison of 60 Hz uniform magnetic and electric induction in the human body, Phys Med Biol, 42, 2319, 1997.
80. Sjogreen, K. et al. Registration of emission and transmission whole-body scintillation-camera images, J Nucl Med, 42, 1563, 2001.
81. Segars, W.P. PhD thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, p. 243, 2001.
82. Johns Hopkins Technology Transfer. http://www.jhtt.jhu.edu/.
83. Segars, W. and Tsui, B. 4D MOBY and NCAT phantoms for medical imaging simulation of mice and men, J Nucl Med Meet Abst, 48, 203P, 2007.
84. Segars, W.P. et al. Development of a 4-D digital mouse phantom for molecular imaging research, Mol Imag Biol, 6, 149, 2004.
85. Xu, X.G. and Shi, C. Preliminary development of a 4D anatomical model for Monte Carlo simulations, in Monte Carlo 2005 Topical Meeting. The Monte Carlo Method: Versatility Unbounded In a Dynamic Computing World, Chattanooga, TN, April 17-21, 2005.
86. Zhang, J. et al. Development of a geometry-based respiratory motion-simulating patient model for radiation treatment dosimetry, J Appl Clin Med Phys, 9, 16, 2008.
87. Xu, X.G. et al. A boundary-representation method for designing whole-body radiation dosimetry models: Pregnant females at the ends of three gestational periods-RPI-P3, -P6 and -P9, Phys Med Biol, 52, 7023, 2007.
88. Xu, X.G., Zhang, J.Y., and Na, Y.H. Preliminary data for mesh-based deformable phantom development: Is it possible to design person-specific phantoms on-demand. The International Conference on Radiation Shielding-11, Georgia, April 14-17, 2008.
89. Hegenbart, L. et al. A Monte Carlo study of lung counting efficiency for female workers of different breast sizes using deformable phantoms, Phys Med Biol, 53, 5527, 2008.
90. Lee, C. et al. Hybrid computational phantoms of the male and female newborn patient: NURBSbased whole-body models, Phys Med Biol, 52, 3309, 2007.
91. Lee, C. et al. Hybrid computational phantoms of the 15-year male and female adolescent: Applications to CT organ dosimetry for patients of variable morphometry, Med Phys, 35, 2366, 2008.
92. Wu, D.G. et al. Evaluations of specific absorption rate and temperature increase within pregnant female models in magnetic resonance imaging birdcage coils, IEEE Trans Microw Theory Tech, 54, 4472, 2006.
93. Stabin, M. et al. ICRP-89 based adult and pediatric phantom series, J Nucl Med Meet Abst, 49, 14, 2008.
94. Anderson, S.W. et al. An instrumented phantom system for analog computation of treatment plans, Am J Roentgenol, 87, 185, 1962.
95. The Phantom Library, http://www.phantomlab.com/rando.html.
96. Computerized Imaging Reference Systems (CIRS), http://www.cirsinc.com.
97. Kyoto Kagaku Co., LTD, http://www.kyotokagaku.com/.
98. Griffith, R.V. et al. Tissue equivalent torso phantom for intercalibration of in vivo transuranic nuclide counting facilities, in Advances in Radiation Protection Monitoring, STI/PUB/494 Proceedings of the IAEA Conference, IAEA-SM-229/56, Vienna: IAEA, 1978.
99. Kim, J.I. et al. Physical phantom of typical Korean male for radiation protection purpose, Radiat Prot Dosim, 118, 131, 2006.
100. Kramer, G.H., Burns, L., and Noel, L. The BRMD BOMAB phantom family, Health Phys, 61, 895, 1991.
101. Tresser, M.A. and Hintenlang, D.E. Construction of a newborn dosimetry phantom for measurement of effective dose, Health Phys, 76, S190, 1999.
102. Jones, A.K. et al. Tomographic physical phantom of the newborn child with real-time dosimetry I. Methods and techniques for construction, Med Phys, 33, 3274, 2006.
103. Staton, R.J. et al. A tomographic physical phantom of the newborn child with real-time dosimetry. II. Scaling factors for calculation of mean organ dose in pediatric radiography, Med Phys, 33, 3283, 2006.
104. Leyton, M. A Generative Theory of Shape, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2001.
105. Agostinelli, S. et al. Geant4 a simulation toolkit, Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res Sec A, 506, 250, 2003.
106. Stroud, I. Boundary Representation Modeling Techniques, London: Springer-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84628-312-3.
107. Geant4 Team 2007 Geant4 User’s Guide for Application Developers, http://geant4.web.cern.ch/geant4/G4UsersDocuments/UsersGuides/ForApplicationDeveloper/html, Last accessed August 2007.
108. Wikipedia 2007, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia, a website maintained by Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Last accessed August 2007.
109. Zaidi, H. and Sgouros, G. Therapeutic Applications of Monte Carlo Calculations in Nuclear Medicine, Bristol: IoP, 2003.
110. Caon, M. Voxel-based computational models of real human anatomy: A review, Radiat Environ Biophys, 42, 229, 2004.
111. Zaidi, H. and Xu, X.G. Computational anthropomorphic models of the human anatomy: The path to realistic Monte Carlo modeling in radiological sciences, Annu Rev Biomed Eng, 9, 471, 2007.
112. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Report of the Task Group on Reference Man, ICRP Publication 23, 1975.
113. Hwang, J.M.L., Shoup, R.L., and Poston, J.W. Mathematical description of a newborn human for use in dosimetry calculations, ORNL/TM-5453, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1976.
114. Jones, R.M. et al. The development and use of a fifteen-year-old equivalent mathematical phantom for internal dose calculations ORNL/TM-5278, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1976.
115. Deus, S.F. and Poston, J.W. The development of a mathematical phantom representing a 10-yearold for use in internal dose calculations, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Radiopharmaceutical Dosimetry, Oak Ridge, TN: HEW Publication (FDA) 76-8044, 1976.
116. Bouchet, L.G. et al. MIRD pamphlet no. 15: Radionuclide S values in a revised dosimetric model of the adult head and brain, J Nuc Med, 40, 62, 1999.
117. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Basic Anatomical and Physiological Data for Use in Radiological Protection: Reference Values, ICRP Publication 89, Oxford: Elsevier, 2002.
118. ICRU. Phantoms and computational models in therapy, diagnosis and protection. ICRU Report 48, Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, 1992.
119. Gu, J.W., Dorgu, A., and Xu, X.G. Comparison of main software packages for CT dose reporting, Health Phys, 95, s1, 50, 2008.
120. Stovall, M., Smith, S.A., and Rosenstein, M. Tissue doses from radiotherapy of cancer of the uterine cervix, Med Phys, 16, 726, 1989.
121. Attix, F.H. Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, New York: Wiley, 1986.
122. Hubbell, J.H. Photon cross sections, attenuation coefficients and energy absorption coefficients from 10 keV to 100 GeV, NSRDS-NBS 29, 1969.
123. Storm, E. and Israel, H.I. Photon cross sections from 1 keV to 100 MeV for elements Z = 1 to Z = 100, Nuclear Data Tables A, 7, 565, 1970.
124. Hammersley, J.M. and Handscomb, D.C. Monte Carlo Methods, London, New York: Methuen; Wiley, 1964.
125. Zhang, J.Y., Na, Y.H., and Xu, X.G. Development of whole-body phantoms representing an average adult male and female using surface-geometry methods, Med Phys, 35, 2875, 2008.
126. Furler, M. Methods of converting geometry in CAD to MCNP code. MS thesis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, May 2007.
127. Liu, X et al. Development and application of MCNP auto-modeling tool: MCAM 3.0, in Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium on Fusion Technology, Venice, Italy, 2004.
128. Raeside, D.E. Monte Carlo principles and applications, Phys Med Biol, 21, 181, 1976.
129. Turner, J.E., Wright, H.A., and Hamm, R.N. A Monte Carlo primer for health physicists, Health Phys, 48, 717, 1985.
130. Andreo, P. Monte Carlo techniques in medical radiation physics, Phys Med Biol, 36, 861, 1991.
131. X-5 Monte Carlo team, 2003 X-5 Monte Carlo team. MCNP-A general Monte Carlo N-particle transport code, Version 5, volume I: Overview and theory, LA-UR-03-1987, Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2003.
132. Pelowitz, D.B. MCNPX User’s Manual Version 2.5.0, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Report LA-CP-05-0369, 2005.
133. http://www.irs.inms.nrc.ca/EGSnrc/EGSnrc.html
134. Agostinelli, S. et al. Geant4-A simulation toolkit. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res A, 506, 250, 2003.
135. Allison, J. et al. Geant4 developments and applications, IEEE Trans Nucl Sci, 53, 270, 2006.
136. http://geant4.web.cern.ch/geant4/collaboration/working_groups.shtml#wg.Run
137. http://www.nea.fr/html/dbprog/peneloperef.html
138. Salvat, F., Fernandez-Varea, J.M., and Sempau J. PENELOPE, a Code System for Monte Carlo Simulation of Electron and Photon Transport, France: OECD Publications, 2003, ISBN 92-64-02145-0.
139. Salvat, F., Fernández-Varea, J.M., and Sempau, J. PENELOPE, a code system for Monte Carlo simulation of electron and photon transport. Workshop Proceedings, Barcelona, Spain, 2006.
140. http://www.fluka.org/fluka.php
141. Fasso, A. et al. The FLUKA code: Description and benchmarking, in CERN-2005-10, INFN/TC_05/11, SLAC-R-773, 2005.
142. Battistoni, G. et al. FLUKA: A multi-particle transport code, in Proceedings of the Hadronic Shower Simulation Workshop. September. Fermilab 6-8: AIP Conference Proceeding, Batavia, IL, 2006.
143. Tomographic models for radiation protection dosimetry session. Monte Carlo 2005 Topical Meeting: The Monte Carlo Method: Versatility Unbounded In A Dynamic Computing World, Chattanooga, TN, April 17-21, 2005.