Airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 to healthcare workers: a narrative review

Anaesthesia

Volumn 75, Issue 8, 2020, Pages 1086-1095

  Wilson, N M ^a   Norton, A ^b   Young, F P ^a   Collins, D W ^a  

^a PRINCE OF WALES HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b Oamaru Hospital   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

aerosol; airborne; COVID 19; SARS CoV 2; transmission

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; AIRBORNE PARTICLE; AIRBORNE VIRUS; BRONCHOSCOPY; CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019; COUGHING; EXHALATION; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HUMAN; NEBULIZATION; NONHUMAN; PARTICLE SIZE; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SHEAR STRESS; VIRUS PARTICLE; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WORK OF BREATHING; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ADVERSE EVENT; BETACORONAVIRUS; CORONAVIRUS INFECTION; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; INFECTION CONTROL; MASK; MICROBIOLOGY; NEBULIZER; PANDEMIC; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PREVENTION AND CONTROL; PROCEDURES; RESPIRATORY FUNCTION; VIRUS PNEUMONIA;

AEROSOLS; AIR MICROBIOLOGY; BETACORONAVIRUS; CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION; CORONAVIRUS INFECTIONS; EXHALATION; HEALTH PERSONNEL; HUMANS; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, PATIENT-TO-PROFESSIONAL; MASKS; NEBULIZERS AND VAPORIZERS; PANDEMICS; PARTICLE SIZE; PNEUMONIA, VIRAL; RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA;

EID: 85083962215     PISSN: 00032409     EISSN: 13652044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/anae.15093     Document Type: Review

References (58)

1. Park BJ, Peck AJ, Kuehnert MJ, et al. Lack of SARS transmission among healthcare workers, United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004; 10: 217–24.
2. Fowler RA, Guest CB, Lapinsky SE, et al. Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome during intubation and mechanical ventilation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2004; 169: 1198–202.
3. Cheung TMT, Yam LYC, So LKY, et al. Effectiveness of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in the treatment of acute respiratory failure in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chest 2004; 126: 845–50.
4. Loeb M, McGeer A, Henry B, et al. SARS among critical care nurses, Toronto. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004; 10: 251–5.
5. Lau JTF, Fung KS, Wong TW, et al. SARS transmission among hospital workers in Hong Kong. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004; 10: 280–6.
6. Christian MD, Loutfy M, McDonald LC, et al. Possible SARS coronavirus transmission during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004; 10: 287–93.
7. World Health Organisation. Modes of transmission of virus causing COVID-19: implications for IPC precaution recommendations. 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/modes-of-transmission-of-virus-causing-covid-19-implications-for-ipc-precaution-recommendations (accessed 08/04/2020).
8. Gu J, Han B, Wang J. COVID-19: gastrointestinal manifestations and potential fecal-oral transmission. Gastroenterology 2020. Epub 3 March. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.054.
9. Tran K, Cimon K, Severn M, Pessoa-Silva CL, Conly J. Aerosol generating procedures and risk of transmission of acute respiratory infections to healthcare workers: a systematic review. PLoS One 2012; 7: e35797.
10. Wei J, Li Y. Airborne spread of infectious agents in the indoor environment. American Journal of Infection Control 2016; 44: S102–8.
11. Almstrand A-C, Bake B, Ljungström E, et al. Effect of airway opening on production of exhaled particles. Journal of Applied Physiology 2010; 108: 584–8.
12. Bredberg A, Gobom J, Almstrand A-C, et al. Exhaled endogenous particles contain lung proteins. Clinical Chemistry 2012; 58: 431–40.
13. Lindsley WG, Pearce TA, Hudnall JB, et al. Quantity and size distribution of cough-generated aerosol particles produced by influenza patients during and after illness. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 2012; 9: 443–9.
14. Lindsley WG, Noti JD, Blachere FM, et al. Viable influenza A virus in airborne particles from human coughs. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 2015; 12: 107–13.
15. Blachere FM, Lindsley WG, Pearce TA, et al. Measurement of airborne influenza virus in a hospital emergency department. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2009; 48: 438–40.
16. Milton DK, Fabian MP, Cowling BJ, Grantham ML, McDevitt JJ. Influenza virus aerosols in human exhaled breath: particle size, culturability, and effect of surgical masks. PLoS Pathogens 2013; 9: e1003205.
17. Kormuth KA, Lin K, Prussin AJ, et al. Influenza virus infectivity is retained in aerosols and droplets independent of relative humidity. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2018; 218: 739–47.
18. Seto WH. Airborne transmission and precautions: facts and myths. Journal of Hospital Infection 2015; 89: 225–8.
19. Edwards DA, Man JC, Brand P, et al. Inhaling to mitigate exhaled bioaerosols. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004; 101: 17383–8.
20. Miguel AF. Penetration of inhaled aerosols in the bronchial tree. Medical Engineering and Physics 2017; 44: 25–31.
21. Johnson GR, Morawska L, Ristovski ZD, et al. Modality of human expired aerosol size distributions. Journal of Aerosol Science 2011; 42: 839–51.
22. Gralton J, Tovey E, McLaws M-L, Rawlinson WD. The role of particle size in aerosolised pathogen transmission: a review. Journal of Infection 2011; 62: 1–13.
23. Hinds WC. Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles, 2nd edn. New York: Wiley, 1999.
24. Xie X, Li Y, Chwang ATY, Ho PL, Seto WH. How far droplets can move in indoor environments–revisiting the Wells evaporation-falling curve. Indoor Air 2007; 17: 211–25.
25. Tellier R. Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2006; 12: 1657–62.
26. Loudon RG, Roberts RM. Relation between the airborne diameters of respiratory droplets and the diameter of the stains left after recovery. Nature 1967; 213: 95–6.
27. Duguid JP. The size and the duration of air-carriage of respiratory droplets and droplet-nuclei. Journal of Hygiene 1946; 44: 471–9.
28. Papineni RS, Rosenthal FS. The size distribution of droplets in the exhaled breath of healthy human subjects. Journal of Aerosol Medicine 1997; 10: 105–16.
29. Bake B, Larsson P, Ljungkvist G, Ljungström E, Olin A-C. Exhaled particles and small airways. Respiratory Research 2019; 20: 8.
30. Bourouiba L. Turbulent gas clouds and respiratory pathogen emissions: potential implications for reducing transmission of COVID-19. Journal of the American Medical Association 2020; 323: 1837–38.
31. Yu ITS, Li Y, Wong TW, et al. Evidence of airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus. New England Journal of Medicine 2004; 350: 1731–9.
32. Wells WF. Air-borne infection. Journal of the American Medical Association 1936; 107: 1698.
33. Lowen AC, Steel J. Roles of humidity and temperature in shaping influenza seasonality. Journal of Virology 2014; 88: 7692–5.
34. Hui DSC, Chan MTV, Chow B. Aerosol dispersion during various respiratory therapies: a risk assessment model of nosocomial infection to health care workers. Hong Kong Medical Journal 2014; 20(Suppl. 4): 9–13.
35. O'Neil CA, Li J, Leavey A, et al. Characterization of aerosols generated during patient care activities. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2017; 65: 1342–8.
36. Alford RH, Kasel JA, Gerone PJ, Knight V. Human influenza resulting from aerosol inhalation. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 1966; 122: 800–4.
37. Snyder MH, Stephenson EH, Young H, et al. Infectivity and antigenicity of live avian-human influenza A reassortant virus: comparison of intranasal and aerosol routes in squirrel monkeys. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1986; 154: 709–11.
38. Loosli CG, Lemon HM, Robertson OH, Appel E. Experimental air-borne influenza infection. I. Influence of humidity on survival of virus in air. Experimental Biology and Medicine 1943; 53: 205–6.
39. Cowling BJ, Ip DKM, Fang VJ, et al. Aerosol transmission is an important mode of influenza A virus spread. Nature Communications 2013; 4: 1935.
40. Yang W, Elankumaran S, Marr LC. Concentrations and size distributions of airborne influenza A viruses measured indoors at a health centre, a day-care centre and on aeroplanes. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface 2011; 8: 1176–84.
41. Wong T, Lee C, Tam W, et al. Cluster of SARS among medical students exposed to single patient, Hong Kong. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004; 10: 269–76.
42. Booth TF, Kournikakis B, Bastien N, et al. Detection of airborne severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus and environmental contamination in SARS outbreak units. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2005; 191: 1472–7.
43. Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis MLC, Lely AT, Navis GJ, van Goor H. Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. Journal of Pathology 2004; 203: 631–7.
44. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Medicine 2020. Epub 3 March. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05985-9.
45. van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. New England Journal of Medicine 2020; 382: 1564–67.
46. Ong SWX, Tan YK, Chia PY, et al. Air, Surface Environmental, and Personal Protective Equipment Contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) From a Symptomatic Patient. Journal of the American Medical Association 2020; 323: 1610–12.
47. Thompson K-A, Pappachan JV, Bennett AM, et al. Influenza aerosols in UK hospitals during the H1N1 (2009) pandemic – the risk of aerosol generation during medical procedures. PLoS ONE 2013; 8: e56278.
48. Li J, Leavey A, Yang W, et al. Defining aerosol generating procedures and pathogen transmission risks in healthcare settings. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 2017; 4: S34–5.
49. Nucci G, Suki B, Lutchen K. Modeling airflow-related shear stress during heterogeneous constriction and mechanical ventilation. Journal of Applied Physiology 2003; 95: 348–56.
50. Olafsson S, Hyatt RE. Ventilatory mechanics and expiratory flow limitation during exercise in normal subjects. Journal of Clinical Investigation 1969; 48: 564–73.
51. Yoshida T, Grieco DL, Brochard L, Fujino Y. Patient self-inflicted lung injury and positive end-expiratory pressure for safe spontaneous breathing. Current Opinion in Critical Care 2020; 26: 59–65.
52. Cook TM, El-Boghdadly K, McGuire B, McNarry AF, Patel A, Higgs A. Consensus guidelines for managing the airway in patients with COVID-19. Anaesthesia 2020; 75: 785–99.
53. Hui DS, Chow BK, Lo T, et al. Exhaled air dispersion during high-flow nasal cannula therapy versus CPAP via different masks. European Respiratory Journal 2019; 53: 1802339.
54. Cook TM, El-Boghdadly K, McGuire B, McNarry AF, Patel A, Higgs A. Consensus guidelines for managing the airway in patients with COVID-19. Anaesthesia 2020. 75: 785–99.
55. Lyons C, Callaghan M. The use of high-flow nasal oxygen in COVID-19. Anaesthesia 2020; 75: 843–847.
56. Zhejiang University School of Medicine. Handbook of COVID-19 Prevention and Treatment. 2020. https://iau-aiu.net/Zhejiang-University-Handbook-of-COVID-19-Prevention-and-Treatment (accessed 28/03/2020).
57. Wang K, Zhao W, Li J, Shu W, Duan J. The experience of high-flow nasal cannula in hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in two hospitals of Chongqing, China. Annals of Intensive Care 2020; 10: 37.
58. Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. International Journal of Oral Science 2020; 12: 8.