Attention and Stereotyping: Cognitive Constraints on the Construction of Meaningful Social Impressions

European Review of Social Psychology

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 145-175

  Sherman, Jeffrey W ^a   Macrae, C Neil ^b   Bodenhausen, Galen V ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85051111637     PISSN: 10463283     EISSN: 1479277X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14792772043000022     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Alba, J. W., and Hasher, L., 1983. Is memory schematic?. Psychological Bulletin, 93: 203–31.
2. Allport, D. A., 1980. “ Patterns and actions: Cognitive mechanisms are content-specific ”. In Cognitive Psychology: New Directions, Edited by: Claxton, G., 26–64. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
3. Allport, D. A., 1989. “ Visual attention ”. In Foundations of Cognitive Science, Edited by: Posner, M. I., 631–82. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
4. Allport, G. W., 1954. The Nature of Prejudice Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
5. Baddeley, A., 1996. Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49 A: 5–28.
6. Baddeley, A., and Della Sala, S., 1998. “ Working memory and executive control ”. In The Prefrontal Cortex: Executive and Cognitive Functions, Edited by: Robers, A. C., Robbins, T. W., and Weiskrantz, L., 9–21. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7. Banaji, M. R., and Greenwald, A. G., 1995. Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68: 181–98.
8. Bargh, J. A., 1989. “ Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition ”. In Unintended Thought, Edited by: Uleman, J. S., and Bargh, J. A., 3–51. New York: Guilford.
9. Bargh, J. A., 1994. “ The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition ”. In Handbook of Social Cognition, 2nd edn, Edited by: Wyer, R. S., Jr and Srull, T. K., Vol. 1, 1–40. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
10. Bargh, J. A., 1999. “ The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 361–82. New York: Guilford.
11. Blessum, K. A., Lord, C. G., and Sia, T. L., 1998. Cognitive load and positive mood reduce typicality effects in attitude-behavior consistency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24: 496–504.
12. Bodenhausen, G. V., 1990. Stereotypes as judgmental heuristics: Evidence of circadian variations in discrimination. Psychological Science, 1: 319–22.
13. Bodenhausen, G. V., and Lichtenstein, M., 1987. Social stereotypes and information processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 871–80.
14. Bodenhausen, G. V., Macrae, C. N., and Sherman, J. W., 1999. “ On the dialectics of discrimination: Dual processes in social stereotyping ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 271–90. New York: Guilford.
15. Brewer, M. B., 1988. “ A dual process model of impression formation ”. In Advances in Social Cognition, Edited by: Wyer, R. S., Jr and Srull, T. K., Vol. 1, 1–36. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
16. Brewer, M. B., and Feinstein, A., 1999. “ Dual processes in the representation of persons and social categories ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 255–70. New York: Guilford.
17. Brewer, W. F., and Nakamura, G. V., 1984. “ The nature and function of schemas ”. In Handbook of Social Cognition, 1st edn, Edited by: Wyer, R. S., Jr and Srull, T. K., Vol. 1, 119–60. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
18. Broadbent, D. E., 1958. Perception and Communication London: Pergamon.
19. Broadbent, D. E., 1975. “ The magic number seven after fifteen years ”. In Studies in Long-term Memory, Edited by: Kennedy, A., and Wilkes, A., 3–18. London: Wiley.
20. Bruner, J. S., 1957. On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64: 123–52.
21. Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., and Austin, G. A., 1956. A Study of Thinking New York: Wiley.
22. Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., eds. 1999. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology New York: Guilford.
23. Chen, S., and Chaiken, S., 1999. “ The heuristic-systematic model in its broader context ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 73–96. New York: Guilford.
24. Cherry, E. C., 1953. Some experiments on the recognition of speech, with one and with two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 25: 975–9.
25. Dempster, F. N., 1981. Memory span: Sources of individual and developmental differences. Psychological Bulletin, 89: 63–100.
26. Deutsch, J. A., and Deutsch, D., 1963. Attention: Some theoretical considerations. Psychological Review, 73: 80–90.
27. Dijksterhuis, A., and Van Knippenberg, A., 1995. Memory for stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent information as a function of processing pace. European Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25: 689–93.
28. Dijksterhuis, A., and Van Knippenberg, A., 1996. The knife that cuts both ways: Facilitated and inhibited access to traits as a result of stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32: 271–88.
29. Fazio, R. H., and Towles-Schwen, T., 1999. “ The MODE model of attitude-behavior processes ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 97–116. New York: Guilford.
30. Fiske, S. T., 1998. “ Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination ”. In Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th edn, Edited by: Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., and Lindzey, G., Vol. 2, 357–411. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
31. Fiske, S. T., and Neuberg, S. L., 1990. A continuum model of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23: 1–74.
32. Fiske, S. T., and Taylor, S. E., 1984. Social Cognition, (1st edn), Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
33. Fiske, S. T., and Taylor, S. E., 1991. Social Cognition, (2nd edn), New York: McGraw-Hill.
34. Frey, D., 1986. Recent research on selective exposure to information. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19: 41–80.
35. Gilbert, D. T., 1989. “ Thinking lightly about others: Automatic components of the social inference process ”. In Unintended Thought, Edited by: Uleman, J. S., and Bargh, J. A., 189–211. New York: Guilford.
36. Gilbert, D. T., 1991. How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46: 107–19.
37. Gilbert, D. T., 1998. “ Ordinary personology ”. In Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th edn, Edited by: Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., and Lindzey, G., Vol. 2, 89–150. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
38. Gilbert, D. T., and Hixon, J. G., 1991. The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60: 509–17.
39. Goldman-Rakic, P. S., 1998. “ The prefrontal landscape: Implications of functional architecture for understanding human mentation and the central executive ”. In The Prefrontal Cortex: Executive and Cognitive Functions, Edited by: Roberts, A. C., Robbins, T. W., and Weiskrantz, L., 87–102. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40. Gordon, R. A., and Anderson, K. S., 1995. Perceptions of race-stereotypic and race-nonstereotypic crime: The impact of response-time instructions on attributions and judgments. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16: 455–70.
41. Graesser, A. C., 1981. Prose Comprehension Beyond the Word New York: Springer-Verlag.
42. Harris, M. J., and Perkins, R., 1995. Effects of distraction on interpersonal expectancy effects: A social-interaction test of the cognitive busyness hypothesis. Social Cognition, 13: 163–82.
43. Hastie, R., and Kumar, P., 1979. Person memory: Personality traits as organizing principles in memory for behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37: 25–38.
44. Hirt, E. R., 1990. Do I see only what I expect? Evidence for an expectancy-guided retrieval model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58: 937–51.
45. Hirt, E. R., Erickson, G. A., and McDonald, H. E., 1993. Role of expectancy timing and outcome consistency in expectancy-guided retrieval. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 640–56.
46. Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C. M., Brown, J., and Jasechko, J., 1989. Becoming famous overnight: Limits on the ability to avoid unconscious influences of the past. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56: 326–38.
47. Jacoby, L. L., Woloshyn, V., and Kelley, C. M., 1989. Becoming famous without being recognized: Unconscious influences of memory produced by divided attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118: 115–25.
48. Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., and Lindsay, D. S., 1993. Source monitoring. Psychological Review, 114: 3–28.
49. Johnston, W. A., Dark, V. J., and Jacoby, L. L., 1985. Perceptual fluency and recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11: 3–11.
50. Johnston, W. A., and Hawley, K. J., 1994. Perceptual inhibition of expected inputs: The key that opens closed minds. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 1: 56–72.
51. Johnston, W. A., Hawley, K. J., and Elliott, J. M. G., 1991. Contribution of perceptual fluency to recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17: 210–23.
52. Kahneman, D., 1973. Attention and Effort New York: Prentice-Hall.
53. Kim, H-S., and Baron, R. S., 1988. Exercise and the illusory correlation: Does arousal heighten stereotypic processing?. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24: 366–80.
54. Klauer, K. C., and Wegener, I., 1998. Unraveling social categorization in the “who said what?” paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 1155–78.
55. Kruglanski, A. W., and Freund, T., 1983. The freezing and unfreezing of lay inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19: 448–68.
56. Kunda, Z., and Thagard, P., 1996. Forming impressions from stereotypes, traits, and behaviors: A parallel constraint satisfaction theory. Psychological Review, 103: 284–308.
57. Levy, B. A., and Kirsner, K., 1989. Reprocessing text: Indirect measures of word and message level processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15: 407–17.
58. Lippmann, W., 1922. Public Opinion New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
59. Logan, G. D., 1997. “ The automaticity of academic life: Unconscious applications of an implicit theory ”. In Advances in Social Cognition, Edited by: Wyer, R. S., Jr. Vol. 10, 157–79. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
60. MacLeod, C. M., 1989. Word context during initial exposure influences degree of priming in word fragment completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15: 398–406.
61. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., and Ford, R. L., 1997. On the regulation of recollection: The intentional forgetting of stereotypical memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72: 709–19.
62. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., Thorn, T. M. J., and Castelli, L., 1997. On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33: 471–89.
63. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Schloerscheidt, A. M., and Milne, A. B., 1999. Tales of the unexpected: Executive function and person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 200–13.
64. Macrae, C. N., Hewstone, M., and Griffiths, R. J., 1993. Processing load and memory for stereotype-based information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23: 76–87.
65. Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., and Bodenhausen, G. V., 1994. Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66: 37–47.
66. Mandler, G., 1985. Cognitive Psychology: An Essay in Cognitive Science Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
67. Martell, R. F., 1991. Sex bias at work: The effects of attentional and memory demands on performance ratings of men and women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21: 1939–60.
68. Miller, G. A., 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63: 81–96.
69. Minsky, M., 1975. “ A framework for representing knowledge ”. In The Psychology of Computer Vision, Edited by: Winston, P. H., 211–77. New York: McGraw-Hill.
70. Moray, N., 1959. Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11: 56–60.
71. Moreno, K. N., and Bodenhausen, G. V., 1999. Resisting stereotype change: The role of motivation and attentional capacity in defending social beliefs. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 2: 5–16.
72. Navon, D., 1984. Resources—a theoretical soup stone?. Psychological Review, 91: 216–34.
73. Navon, D., and Gopher, D., 1979. On the economy of the human processing system. Psychological Review, 86: 214–55.
74. Neisser, U., 1976. Cognition and Reality San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
75. Norman, D. A., 1968. Toward a theory of memory and attention. Psychological Review, 75: 522–36.
76. Oakes, P. J., and Turner, J. C., 1990. “ Is limited information processing capacity the cause of social stereotyping? ”. In European Review of Social Psychology, Edited by: Stroebe, W., and Hewstone, M., Vol. 1, 111–35. Chichester: Wiley.
77. Pashler, H., 1994. Dual task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 16: 220–44.
78. Pashler, H., 1998. The Psychology of Attention Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
79. Pendry, L. F., 1998. When the mind is otherwise engaged: Resource depletion and social stereotyping. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28: 293–9.
80. Pendry, L. F., and Macrae, C. N., 1994. Stereotypes and mental life: The case of the motivated but thwarted tactician. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30: 303–25.
81. Petty, R. F., and Wegener, D. T., 1999. “ The elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 41–72. New York: Guilford.
82. Posner, M. I., and Boies, S. J., 1971. Components of attention. Psychological Review, 78: 391–408.
83. Pratto, F., and Bargh, J. A., 1991. Stereotyping based upon apparently individuating information: Trait and global components of sex stereotypes under attention overload. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27: 26–47.
84. Roediger, H. L., III. 1990. Implicit memory. American Psychologist, 45: 1043–56.
85. Rosch, E. H., 1978. “ Principles of categorization ”. In Cognition and Categorization, Edited by: Rosch, E., and Lloyd, B. B., Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
86. Rothbart, M., Fulero, S., Jensen, C., Howard, J., and Birrell, B., 1978. From individual to group impressions: Availability heuristics in stereotype formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14: 237–55.
87. Rothbart, M., Sriram, N., and Davis-Stitt, C., 1996. The retrieval of typical and atypical category members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32: 309–36.
88. Shallice, T., and Burgess, P., 1998. “ The domain of supervisory processes and the temporal organization of behavior ”. In The Prefrontal Cortex: Executive and Cognitive Functions, Edited by: Roberts, A. C., Robbins, T. W., and Weiskrantz, L., 22–35. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
89. Sherman, J. W., 1996. Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70: 1126–41.
90. Sherman, J. W., in press. “ The dynamic relationship between stereotype efficiency and mental representation ”. In Cognitive Social Psychology: On the Tenure and Future of Social Cognition, Edited by: Moskowitz, G., New York: Guilford.
91. Sherman, J. W., and Bessenoff, G. R., 1999. Stereotypes as source-monitoring cues: On the interaction between episodic and semantic memory. Psychological Science, 10: 106–10.
92. Sherman, J. W., and Frost, L. A., 2000. On the encoding of stereotype-relevant information under cognitive load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 26–34.
93. Sherman, J. W., Lee, A. Y., Bessenoff, G. R., and Frost, L. A., 1998. Stereotype efficiency reconsidered: Encoding flexibility under cognitive load. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 589–606.
94. Simon, H. A., 1978. Rationality as a process and product of thought. American Economic Review, 68: 1–16.
95. Spears, R., and Haslam, S. A., 1997. “ Stereotyping and the burden of cognitive load ”. In The Social Psychology of Stereotyping and Group Life, Edited by: Spears, R., Oakes, P. J., Ellemers, N., and Haslam, S. A., 171–207. Oxford: Blackwell.
96. Spencer, S. J., Fein, S., Wolfe, C. T., Fong, C., and Dunn, M., 1998. Automatic activation of stereotypes: The role of self-image threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24: 1139–52.
97. Srull, T. K., 1984. “ Methodological techniques for the study of person memory and social cognition ”. In Handbook of Social Cognition, 1st edn, Edited by: Wyer, R. S., Jr and Srull, T. K., Vol. 2, 1–72. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
98. Stangor, C., and Duan, C., 1991. Effects of multiple task demands upon memory for information about social groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27: 357–78.
99. Stangor, C., and McMillan, D., 1992. Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of the social and social developmental literatures. Psychological Bulletin, 111: 42–61.
100. Tajfel, H., 1969. Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25 (4): 79–97.
101. Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., and Ruderman, A. J., 1978. Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36: 778–93.
102. Treisman, A., 1960. Contextual cues in selective listening. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12: 242–8.
103. Treisman, A., and Davies, A., 1973. “ Dividing attention to ear and eye ”. In Attention and Performance IV, Edited by: Kornblum, S., 101–17. New York: Academic Press.
104. Trope, Y., and Gaunt, R., 1999. “ A dual-process model of overconfident attributional inferences ”. In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, Edited by: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y., 161–78. New York: Guilford.
105. Tulving, E., and Pearlstone, Z., 1966. Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5: 381–91.
106. Van Knippenberg, A., and Dijksterhuis, A., 1996. A posteriori stereotype activation: The preservation of stereotypes through memory distortion. Social Cognition, 14: 21–53.
107. Van Knippenberg, A., Dijksterhuis, A., and Vermeulen, D., 1999. Judgment and memory of a criminal act: The effects of stereotypes and cognitive load. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29: 191–201.
108. von Hippel, W., Jonides, J., Hilton, J. L., and Narayan, S., 1993. Inhibitory effect of schematic processing on perceptual encoding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 921–35.
109. Wegner, D. M., 1994. Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101: 34–52.
110. Wickens, C. D., 1980. “ The structure of attentional resources ”. In Attention and Performance VIII, Edited by: Nickerson, R. S., 239–57. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
111. Wickens, C. D., 1984. “ Processing resources in attention, dual task performance, and workload assessment ”. In Varieties of Attention, Edited by: Parasuraman, R., and Davies, R., 63–102. New York: Academic Press.
112. Wyer, N. A., Sherman, J. W., and Stroessner, S. J., 2000. The roles of motivation and ability in controlling the consequences of stereotype suppression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 13–25.
113. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Coull, A., and Rocher, S. J., 1999. Fencing off the deviant: The role of cognitive resources in the maintenance of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77: 449–62.