Exercise as a therapeutic intervention to optimize fetal weight

Pharmacological Research

Volumn 132, Issue , 2018, Pages 160-167

  Reyes, Laura M ^a   Davenport, Margie H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Exercise; Fetal weight; Pregnancy

Indexed keywords

GLUCOSE;

ADAPTATION; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BIRTH WEIGHT; BODY COMPOSITION; EXERCISE; FETUS GROWTH; FETUS WEIGHT; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; METABOLIC REGULATION; PLACENTA; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PRENATAL CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SMALL FOR DATE INFANT; ANIMAL; FEMALE; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; MATERNAL WELFARE; PREGNANCY;

ANIMALS; EXERCISE; FEMALE; FETAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; MATERNAL HEALTH; PREGNANCY;

EID: 85046359995     PISSN: 10436618     EISSN: 10961186     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.04.016     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Barker, D.J., The fetal and infant origins of adult disease. BMJ, 301(6761), 1990, 1111.
2. Oken, E., Gillman, M.W., Fetal origins of obesity. Obes. Res. 11:4 (2003), 496–506.
3. Melchiorre, K., Sharma, R., Thilaganathan, B., Cardiac structure and function in normal pregnancy. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 24:6 (2012), 413–421.
4. Duvekot, J.J., Cheriex, E.C., Pieters, F.A., Menheere, P.P., Peeters, L.H., Early pregnancy changes in hemodynamics and volume homeostasis are consecutive adjustments triggered by a primary fall in systemic vascular tone. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 169:6 (1993), 1382–1392.
5. Valdes, G., Kaufmann, P., Corthorn, J., Erices, R., Brosnihan, K.B., Joyner-Grantham, J., Vasodilator factors in the systemic and local adaptations to pregnancy. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol., 7, 2009, 79.
6. Chang, J., Streitman, D., Physiologic adaptations to pregnancy. Neurol. Clin. 30:3 (2012), 781–789.
7. Catalano, P.M., Tyzbir, E.D., Wolfe, R.R., Calles, J., Roman, N.M., Amini, S.B., Sims, E.A., Carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy in control subjects and women with gestational diabetes. Am. J. Physiol. 264:1 (Pt 1) (1993), E60–7.
8. Chiang, A.N., Yang, M.L., Hung, J.H., Chou, P., Shyn, S.K., Ng, H.T., Alterations of serum lipid levels and their biological relevances during and after pregnancy. Life Sci. 56:26 (1995), 2367–2375.
9. Kingdom, J.C., Kaufmann, P., Oxygen and placental vascular development. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 474 (1999), 259–275.
10. Williams, D., Pregnancy: a stress test for life. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 15:6 (2003), 465–471.
11. Sattar, N., Greer, I.A., Pregnancy complications and maternal cardiovascular risk: opportunities for intervention and screening?. BMJ 325:7356 (2002), 157–160.
12. Cuevas, A.M., Germain, A.M., A failed pregnancy stress test: a new and under-recognized cardiovascular risk factor. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 13:4 (2011), 285–286.
13. Block-Abraham, D.M., Adamovich, D., Turan, O.M., Doyle, L.E., Blitzer, M.G., Baschat, A.A., Maternal blood pressures during pregnancy and the risk of delivering a small-for-gestational-age neonate. Hypertens. Pregnancy 35:3 (2016), 350–360.
14. Wang, H.Q., Lai, H.L., Li, Y., Liu, Q.F., Hu, S., Li, L., The relationship between maternal gestational impaired glucose tolerance and risk of large-for-gestational-age infant: a meta-analysis of 14 studies. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 8:3 (2016), 264–269.
15. Barker, D.J., Winter, P.D., Osmond, C., Margetts, B., Simmonds, S.J., Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 2:8663 (1989), 577–580.
16. Barker, D.J., Gluckman, P.D., Godfrey, K.M., Harding, J.E., Owens, J.A., Robinson, J.S., Fetal nutrition and cardiovascular disease in adult life. Lancet 341:8850 (1993), 938–941.
17. Barker, D.J., Osmond, C., Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1:8489 (1986), 1077–1081.
18. Barker, D.J., Bull, A.R., Osmond, C., Simmonds, S.J., Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. BMJ 301:6746 (1990), 259–262.
19. Harder, T., Roepke, K., Diller, N., Stechling, Y., Dudenhausen, J.W., Plagemann, A., Birth weight, early weight gain, and subsequent risk of type 1 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 169:12 (2009), 1428–1436.
20. Rugholm, S., Baker, J.L., Olsen, L.W., Schack-Nielsen, L., Bua, J., Sorensen, T.I., Stability of the association between birth weight and childhood overweight during the development of the obesity epidemic. Obes. Res. 13:12 (2005), 2187–2194.
21. Schellong, K., Schulz, S., Harder, T., Plagemann, A., Birth weight and long-term overweight risk: systematic review and a meta-analysis including 643, 902 persons from 66 studies and 26 countries globally. PLoS One, 7(10), 2012, e47776.
22. Lewis, G., Reviewing maternal deaths to make pregnancy safer. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 22:3 (2008), 447–463.
23. Wilcox, A.J., On the importance –and the unimportance–of birthweight. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:6 (2001), 1233–1241.
24. Gill, S.V., May-Benson, T.A., Teasdale, A., Munsell, E.G., Birth and developmental correlates of birth weight in a sample of children with potential sensory processing disorder. BMC Pediatr., 13, 2013, 29.
25. Johnson, R.C., Schoeni, R.F., Early-life origins of adult disease: national longitudinal population-based study of the United States. Am. J. Public Health 101:12 (2011), 2317–2324.
26. Jaquet, D., Gaboriau, A., Czernichow, P., Levy-Marchal, C., Insulin resistance early in adulthood in subjects born with intrauterine growth retardation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85:4 (2000), 1401–1406.
27. McMillen, I.C., Robinson, J.S., Developmental origins of the metabolic syndrome: prediction, plasticity, and programming. Physiol. Rev. 85:2 (2005), 571–633.
28. Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases, 2010, Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010 (2011) 1–162.
29. P.H.A.o. Canada, Economic Burden of Illness in Canada 2000, 2000. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cd-mc/cvd-mcv/cvd_ebic-mcv_femc-eng.php. (Accessed 2 February2015).
30. Leal, J., Luengo-Fernández, R., Gray, A., Petersen, S., Rayner, M., Economic burden of cardiovascular diseases in the enlarged European Union. Eur. Heart J. 27:13 (2006), 1610–1619.
31. Fuster, V., Kelly, B.B., Vedanthan, R., Global cardiovascular health: urgent need for an intersectoral approach. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 58:12 (2011), 1208–1210.
32. Mbuagbaw, L., Medley, N., Darzi, A.J., Richardson, M., Habiba Garga, K., Ongolo-Zogo, P., Health system and community level interventions for improving antenatal care coverage and health outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 12, 2015, CD010994.
33. Andrade, S.E., Gurwitz, J.H., Davis, R.L., Chan, K.A., Finkelstein, J.A., Fortman, K., McPhillips, H., Raebel, M.A., Roblin, D., Smith, D.H., Yood, M.U., Morse, A.N., Platt, R., Prescription drug use in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 191:2 (2004), 398–407.
34. Chervenak, F.A., McCullough, L.B., An ethically justified framework for clinical investigation to benefit pregnant and fetal patients. Am. J. Bioeth. 11:5 (2011), 39–49.
35. C.f.D.C.a. Prevention, Medications and Pregnancy, 2017. https://www.cdc.gov/pregnancy/meds/index.html. (Accessed 9 October 2017 2017).
36. Rumbold, A., Duley, L., Crowther, C.A., Haslam, R.R., Antioxidants for preventing pre-eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 1, 2008, CD004227.
37. Talaulikar, V., Manyonda, I., Vitamins C and E for the prevention of pre-eclampsia: time to give up the ghost*. BJOG 116:10 (2009), 1416–1417.
38. Feghali, M., Venkataramanan, R., Caritis, S., Pharmacokinetics of drugs in pregnancy. Semin. Perinatol. 39:7 (2015), 512–519.
39. Benevent, J., Montastruc, F., Damase-Michel, C., The importance of pharmacoepidemiology in pregnancy-implications for safety. Expert Opin. Drug Saf. 16:10 (2017), 1181–1190.
40. Tremblay, M.S., Colley, R.C., Saunders, T.J., Healy, G.N., Owen, N., Physiological and health implications of a sedentary lifestyle. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 35:6 (2010), 725–740.
41. Johnson, S.T., Lynch, B., Vallance, J., Davenport, M.H., Gardiner, P.A., Butalia, S., Sedentary behavior, gestational diabetes mellitus, and type 2 diabetes risk: where do we stand?. Endocrine 52:1 (2016), 5–10.
42. Goldstein, R.F., Abell, S.K., Ranasinha, S., Misso, M., Boyle, J.A., Black, M.H., Li, N., Hu, G., Corrado, F., Rode, L., Kim, Y.J., Haugen, M., Song, W.O., Kim, M.H., Bogaerts, A., Devlieger, R., Chung, J.H., Teede, H.J., Association of gestational weight gain with maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 317:21 (2017), 2207–2225.
43. Yu, Z.B., Han, S.P., Zhu, G.Z., Zhu, C., Wang, X.J., Cao, X.G., Guo, X.R., Birth weight and subsequent risk of obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 12:7 (2011), 525–542.
44. Mosca, L., Benjamin, E.J., Berra, K., Bezanson, J.L., Dolor, R.J., et al. Effectiveness-based guidelines for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in women–2011 update: a guideline from the American Heart Association. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 57:12 (2011), 1404–1423.
45. Powers, S.K., Quindry, J.C., Kavazis, A.N., Exercise-induced cardioprotection against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 44:2 (2008), 193–201.
46. Schuler, G., Adams, V., Goto, Y., Role of exercise in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: results, mechanisms, and new perspectives. Eur. Heart J. 34:24 (2013), 1790–1799.
47. Gunduz, F., Kocer, G., Ulker, S., Meiselman, H.J., Baskurt, O.K., Senturk, U.K., Exercise training enhances flow-mediated dilation in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Physiol. Res. 60:4 (2011), 589–597.
48. Maeda, S., Sugawara, J., Yoshizawa, M., Otsuki, T., Shimojo, N., Jesmin, S., Ajisaka, R., Miyauchi, T., Tanaka, H., Involvement of endothelin-1 in habitual exercise-induced increase in arterial compliance. Acta Physiol. (Oxf.) 196:2 (2009), 223–229.
49. Adams, V., Linke, A., Krankel, N., Erbs, S., Gielen, S., Mobius-Winkler, S., Gummert, J.F., Mohr, F.W., Schuler, G., Hambrecht, R., Impact of regular physical activity on the NAD(P)H oxidase and angiotensin receptor system in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 111:5 (2005), 555–562.
50. Rush, J.W., Turk, J.R., Laughlin, M.H., Exercise training regulates SOD-1 and oxidative stress in porcine aortic endothelium. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 284:4 (2003), H1378–87.
51. Mueller, P.J., Exercise training and sympathetic nervous system activity: evidence for physical activity dependent neural plasticity. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 34:4 (2007), 377–384.
52. Hsu, Y.C., Chen, H.I., Kuo, Y.M., Yu, L., Huang, T.Y., Chen, S.J., Chuang, J.I., Wu, F.S., Jen, C.J., Chronic treadmill running in normotensive rats resets the resting blood pressure to lower levels by upregulating the hypothalamic GABAergic system. J. Hypertens. 29:12 (2011), 2339–2348.
53. A.C.o.S. Medicine, ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 2013, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
54. Hanson, M., Godfrey, K.M., Lillycrop, K.A., Burdge, G.C., Gluckman, P.D., Developmental plasticity and developmental origins of non-communicable disease: theoretical considerations and epigenetic mechanisms. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 106:1 (2011), 272–280.
55. Davenport, M.H., Skow, R.J., Steinback, C.D., Maternal responses to aerobic exercise in pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 59:3 (2016), 541–551.
56. Kramer, M.S., McDonald, S.W., Aerobic exercise for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 3, 2006, CD000180.
57. Gilbert, J.S., Banek, C.T., Bauer, A.J., Gingery, A., Dreyer, H.C., Placental and vascular adaptations to exercise training before and during pregnancy in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 303:5 (2012), R520–6.
58. Ramirez-Velez, R., Aguilar de Plata, A.C., Escudero, M.M., Echeverry, I., Ortega, J.G., Salazar, B., Rey, J.J., Hormiga, C., Lopez-Jaramillo, P., Influence of regular aerobic exercise on endothelium-dependent vasodilation and cardiorespiratory fitness in pregnant women. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res. 37:11 (2011), 1601–1608.
59. Aune, D., Saugstad, O.D., Henriksen, T., Tonstad, S., Physical activity and the risk of preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology 25:3 (2014), 331–343.
60. Muktabhant, B., Lawrie, T.A., Lumbiganon, P., Laopaiboon, M., Diet or exercise, or both, for preventing excessive weight gain in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 6, 2015, CD007145.
61. Bisson, M., Tremblay, F., St-Onge, O., Robitaille, J., Pronovost, E., Simonyan, D., Marc, I., Influence of maternal physical activity on infant's body composition. Pediatr. Obes. 12:Suppl. 1 (2017), 38–46.
62. SMA statement the benefits and risks of exercise during pregnancy. Sport Medicine Australia. J. Sci. Med. Sport 5:1 (2002), 11–19.
63. ACOG committee opinion No. 650: physical activity and exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Obstet. Gynecol. 126:6 (2015), e135–e142.
64. Wolfe, L.A., Davies, G.A., P. School of D.o.O. Health Education Gynaecology, Q.s.U.K.O.C. Physiology, Canadian guidelines for exercise in pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 46:2 (2003), 488–495.
65. D.o.H. UK, Physical Activity for Pregnant Women: Infographic. 2017 (Accessed October 13 2017) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/start-active-stay-active-infographics-on-physical-activity.
66. Evenson, K.R., Wen, F., Prevalence and correlates of objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior among US pregnant women. Prev. Med. 53:1–2 (2011), 39–43.
67. Santo, E.C., Forbes, P.W., Oken, E., Belfort, M.B., Determinants of physical activity frequency and provider advice during pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 17(1), 2017, 286.
68. Evenson, K.R., Moos, M.K., Carrier, K., Siega-Riz, A.M., Perceived barriers to physical activity among pregnant women. Matern. Child Health J. 13:3 (2009), 364–375.
69. Newham, J.J., Allan, C., Leahy-Warren, P., Carrick-Sen, D., Alderdice, F., Intentions toward physical activity and resting behavior in pregnant women: using the theory of planned behavior framework in a cross-sectional study. Birth 43:1 (2016), 49–57.
70. Matthews, C.E., Chen, K.Y., Freedson, P.S., Buchowski, M.S., Beech, B.M., Pate, R.R., Troiano, R.P., Amount of time spent in sedentary behaviors in the United States, 2003–2004. Am. J. Epidemiol. 167:7 (2008), 875–881.
71. Hawkins, M., Pekow, P., Chasan-Taber, L., Physical activity, sedentary behavior, and C-reactive protein in pregnancy. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 46:2 (2014), 284–292.
72. Gollenberg, A.L., Pekow, P., Bertone-Johnson, E.R., Freedson, P.S., Markenson, G., Chasan-Taber, L., Sedentary behaviors and abnormal glucose tolerance among pregnant Latina women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 42:6 (2010), 1079–1085.
73. Fazzi, C., Saunders, D.H., Linton, K., Norman, J.E., Reynolds, R.M., Sedentary behaviours during pregnancy: a systematic review. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act, 14(1), 2017, 32.
74. Schmidt, S.M., Chari, R., Davenport, M.H., Exercise during pregnancy: current recommendations by canadian maternity health care providers. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can. 38:2 (2016), 177–178.
75. Bauer, P.W., Broman, C.L., Pivarnik, J.M., Exercise and pregnancy knowledge among healthcare providers. J. Womens Health (Larchmt) 19:2 (2010), 335–341.
76. Delp, M.D., Differential effects of training on the control of skeletal muscle perfusion. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 30:3 (1998), 361–374.
77. Clapp, J.F. 3rd, The course of labor after endurance exercise during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 163:6 (Pt 1) (1990), 1799–1805.
78. Clapp, J.F. 3rd., Capeless, E.L., Neonatal morphometrics after endurance exercise during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 163:6(Pt 1) (1990), 1805–1811.
79. Clapp, J.F. 3rd., Dickstein, S., Endurance exercise and pregnancy outcome. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 16:6 (1984), 556–562.
80. Curet, L.B., Orr, J.A., Rankin, H.G., Ungerer, T., Effect of exercise on cardiac output and distribution of uterine blood flow in pregnant ewes. J. Appl. Physiol. 40:5 (1976), 725–728.
81. Clapp, J.F. 3rd., Acute exercise stress in the pregnant ewe. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 136:4 (1980), 489–494.
82. O'Hagan, K.P., Alberts, J.A., Uterine artery blood flow and renal sympathetic nerve activity during exercise in rabbit pregnancy. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 285:5 (2003), R1135–44.
83. Orr, J., Ungerer, T., Will, J., Wernicke, K., Curet, L.B., Effect of exercise stress on carotid, uterine, and iliac blood flow in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 114:2 (1972), 213–217.
84. Chandler, K.D., Bell, A.W., Effects of maternal exercise on fetal and maternal respiration and nutrient metabolism in the pregnant ewe. J. Dev. Physiol. 3:3 (1981), 161–176.
85. Lotgering, F.K., Gilbert, R.D., Longo, L.D., Exercise responses in pregnant sheep: oxygen consumption, uterine blood flow, and blood volume. J. Appl. Physiol. Respir. Environ. Exerc. Physiol. 55:3 (1983), 834–841.
86. Hohimer, A.R., Bissonnette, J.M., Metcalfe, J., McKean, T.A., Effect of exercise on uterine blood flow in the pregnant Pygmy goat. Am. J. Physiol. 246:2 (Pt 2) (1984), H207–12.
87. Lotgering, F.K., Gilbert, R.D., Longo, L.D., Exercise responses in pregnant sheep: blood gases, temperatures, and fetal cardiovascular system. J. Appl. Physiol. Respir. Environ. Exerc. Physiol. 55:3 (1983), 842–850.
88. de Oliveria Melo, A.S., Silva, J.L., Tavares, J.S., Barros, V.O., Leite, D.F., Amorim, M.M., Effect of a physical exercise program during pregnancy on uteroplacental and fetal blood flow and fetal growth: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 120:2 (Pt 1) (2012), 302–310.
89. Ertan, A.K., Schanz, S., Tanriverdi, H.A., Meyberg, R., Schmidt, W., Doppler examinations of fetal and uteroplacental blood flow in AGA and IUGR fetuses before and after maternal physical exercise with the bicycle ergometer. J. Perinat. Med. 32:3 (2004), 260–265.
90. Szymanski, L.M., Satin, A.J., Exercise during pregnancy: fetal responses to current public health guidelines. Obstet. Gynecol. 119:3 (2012), 603–610.
91. Nabeshima, Y., Sasaki, J., Mesaki, N., Sohda, S., Kubo, T., Effect of maternal exercise on fetal umbilical artery waveforms: the comparison of IUGR and AFD fetuses. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res. 23:3 (1997), 255–259.
92. Wiebe, H.W., Boule, N.G., Chari, R., Davenport, M.H., The effect of supervised prenatal exercise on fetal growth: a meta-analysis. Obstet. Gynecol. 125:5 (2015), 1185–1194.
93. Oken, E., Rifas-Shiman, S.L., Field, A.E., Frazier, A.L., Gillman, M.W., Maternal gestational weight gain and offspring weight in adolescence. Obstet. Gynecol. 112:5 (2008), 999–1006.
94. Wrotniak, B.H., Shults, J., Butts, S., Stettler, N., Gestational weight gain and risk of overweight in the offspring at age 7 y in a multicenter, multiethnic cohort study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87:6 (2008), 1818–1824.
95. Vesco, K.K., Sharma, A.J., Dietz, P.M., Rizzo, J.H., Callaghan, W.M., England, L., Bruce, F.C., Bachman, D.J., Stevens, V.J., Hornbrook, M.C., Newborn size among obese women with weight gain outside the 2009 Institute of Medicine recommendation. Obstet. Gynecol. 117:4 (2011), 812–818.
96. Reid, E.W., McNeill, J.A., Alderdice, F.A., Tully, M.A., Holmes, V.A., Physical activity, sedentary behaviour and fetal macrosomia in uncomplicated pregnancies: a prospective cohort study. Midwifery 30:12 (2014), 1202–1209.
97. Davenport, M.H., Ruchat, S.M., Giroux, I., Sopper, M.M., Mottola, M.F., Timing of excessive pregnancy-related weight gain and offspring adiposity at birth. Obstet. Gynecol. 122:2 (Pt 1) (2013), 255–261.
98. Clapp, J.F. 3rd, Kim, H., Burciu, B., Lopez, B., Beginning regular exercise in early pregnancy: effect on fetoplacental growth. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 183:6 (2000), 1484–1488.
99. Clapp, J.F. 3rd, Kim, H., Burciu, B., Schmidt, S., Petry, K., Lopez, B., Continuing regular exercise during pregnancy: effect of exercise volume on fetoplacental growth. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186:1 (2002), 142–147.
100. Hopkins, S.A., Baldi, J.C., Cutfield, W.S., McCowan, L., Hofman, P.L., Exercise training in pregnancy reduces offspring size without changes in maternal insulin sensitivity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 95:5 (2010), 2080–2088.
101. Marquez-Sterling, S., Perry, A.C., Kaplan, T.A., Halberstein, R.A., Signorile, J.F., Physical and psychological changes with vigorous exercise in sedentary primigravidae. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32:1 (2000), 58–62.
102. Harrod, C.S., Chasan-Taber, L., Reynolds, R.M., Fingerlin, T.E., Glueck, D.H., Brinton, J.T., Dabelea, D., Physical activity in pregnancy and neonatal body composition: the Healthy Start study. Obstet. Gynecol. 124:2 (Pt 1) (2014), 257–264.
103. Catalano, P.M., Farrell, K., Thomas, A., Huston-Presley, L., Mencin, P., de Mouzon, S.H., Amini, S.B., Perinatal risk factors for childhood obesity and metabolic dysregulation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90:5 (2009), 1303–1313.
104. Henderson, M., Benedetti, A., Barnett, T.A., Mathieu, M.E., Deladoey, J., Gray-Donald, K., Influence of adiposity, physical activity, fitness, and screen time on insulin dynamics over 2 years in children. JAMA Pediatr. 170:3 (2016), 227–235.
105. Catalano, P.M., Drago, N.M., Amini, S.B., Maternal carbohydrate metabolism and its relationship to fetal growth and body composition. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172:5 (1995), 1464–1470.
106. Catalano, P.M., Tyzbir, E.D., Roman, N.M., Amini, S.B., Sims, E.A., Longitudinal changes in insulin release and insulin resistance in nonobese pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165:6 (Pt 1) (1991), 1667–1672.
107. Catalano, P.M., Ehrenberg, H.M., The short- and long-term implications of maternal obesity on the mother and her offspring. BJOG 113:10 (2006), 1126–1133.
108. Taggart, N.R., Holliday, R.M., Billewicz, W.Z., Hytten, F.E., Thomson, A.M., Changes in skinfolds during pregnancy. Br. J. Nutr. 21:2 (1967), 439–451.
109. de Castro, J., Sevillano, J., Marciniak, J., Rodriguez, R., Gonzalez-Martin, C., Viana, M., Eun-suk, O.H., de Mouzon, S.H., Herrera, E., Ramos, M.P., Implication of low level inflammation in the insulin resistance of adipose tissue at late pregnancy. Endocrinology 152:11 (2011), 4094–4105.
110. Wedekind, L., Belkacemi, L., Altered cytokine network in gestational diabetes mellitus affects maternal insulin and placental-fetal development. J. Diabetes Complications 30:7 (2016), 1393–1400.
111. Barbour, L.A., McCurdy, C.E., Hernandez, T.L., Kirwan, J.P., Catalano, P.M., Friedman, J.E., Cellular mechanisms for insulin resistance in normal pregnancy and gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 30:Suppl. 2 (2007), S112–9.
112. Brett, K.E., Ferraro, Z.M., Yockell-Lelievre, J., Gruslin, A., Adamo, K.B., Maternal-fetal nutrient transport in pregnancy pathologies: the role of the placenta. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 15:9 (2014), 16153–16185.
113. Hamilton, J.K., Odrobina, E., Yin, J., Hanley, A.J., Zinman, B., Retnakaran, R., Maternal insulin sensitivity during pregnancy predicts infant weight gain and adiposity at 1 year of age. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18:2 (2010), 340–346.
114. Ruchat, S.M., Davenport, M.H., Giroux, I., Hillier, M., Batada, A., Sopper, M.M., McManus, R., Hammond, J.A., Mottola, M.F., Effect of exercise intensity and duration on capillary glucose responses in pregnant women at low and high risk for gestational diabetes. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 28:8 (2012), 669–678.
115. Clapp, J.F. 3rd, Capeless, E.L., The changing glycemic response to exercise during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165:6 (Pt 1) (1991), 1678–1683.
116. Brown, J., Alwan, N.A., West, J., Brown, S., McKinlay, C.J., Farrar, D., Crowther, C.A., Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 5, 2017, CD011970.
117. Wang, C., Guelfi, K.J., Yang, H.X., Exercise and its role in gestational diabetes mellitus. Chronic Dis. Transl. Med. 2:4 (2016), 208–214.
118. Mottola, M.F., The role of exercise in the prevention and treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus. Curr. Diab. Rep. 8:4 (2008), 299–304.
119. Golbidi, S., Laher, I., Potential mechanisms of exercise in gestational diabetes. J. Nutr. Metab., 2013, 2013, 285948.
120. Tan, E.K., Tan, E.L., Alterations in physiology and anatomy during pregnancy. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 27:6 (2013), 791–802.
121. Usselman, C.W., Skow, R.J., Matenchuk, B.A., Chari, R.S., Julian, C.G., Stickland, M.K., Davenport, M.H., Steinback, C.D., Sympathetic baroreflex gain in normotensive pregnant women. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 119:5 (2015), 68–74.
122. Usselman, C.W., Wakefield, P.K., Skow, R.J., Stickland, M.K., Chari, R.S., Julian, C.G., Steinback, C.D., Davenport, M.H., Regulation of sympathetic nerve activity during the cold pressor test in normotensive pregnant and nonpregnant women. Hypertension 66:4 (2015), 858–864.
123. Greenwood, J.P., Scott, E.M., Stoker, J.B., Walker, J.J., Mary, D.A., Sympathetic neural mechanisms in normal and hypertensive pregnancy in humans. Circulation 104:18 (2001), 2200–2204.
124. Jarvis, S.S., Shibata, S., Bivens, T.B., Okada, Y., Casey, B.M., Levine, B.D., Fu, Q., Sympathetic activation during early pregnancy in humans. J. Physiol. 590:15 (2012), 3535–3543.
125. Okada, Y., Best, S.A., Jarvis, S.S., Shibata, S., Parker, R.S., Casey, B.M., Levine, B.D., Fu, Q., Asian women have attenuated sympathetic activation but enhanced renal-adrenal responses during pregnancy compared to Caucasian women. J. Physiol. 593:5 (2015), 1159–1168.
126. Brauer, M.M., Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying plasticity in uterine sympathetic nerves. Auton. Neurosci. 140:1–2 (2008), 1–16.
127. Gibson, P.S., Powrie, R., Peipert, J., Prevalence of syncope and recurrent presyncope during pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 97:4 (Suppl. 1) (2001), S41–S42.
128. Blake, M.J., Martin, A., Manktelow, B.N., Armstrong, C., Halligan, A.W., Panerai, R.B., Potter, J.F., Changes in baroreceptor sensitivity for heart rate during normotensive pregnancy and the puerperium. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 98:3 (2000), 259–268.
129. Lucini, D., Strappazzon, P., Dalla, V.L., Maggioni, C., Pagani, M., Cardiac autonomic adjustments to normal human pregnancy: insight from spectral analysis of R-R interval and systolic arterial pressure variability. J. Hypertens. 17:12 (Pt 2) (1999), 1899–1904.
130. Hissen, S.L., El Sayed, K., Macefield, V.G., Brown, R., Taylor, C.E., Muscle sympathetic nerve activity peaks in the first trimester in healthy pregnancy: a longitudinal case study. Clin. Auton. Res. 27 (2017), 401–406.
131. Brooks, V.L., Kane, C.M., Van Winkle, D.M., Altered heart rate baroreflex during pregnancy: role of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Am. J. Physiol. 273:3 (Pt 2) (1997), R960–R966.
132. Brooks, V.L., Mulvaney, J.M., Azar, A.S., Zhao, D., Goldman, R.K., Pregnancy impairs baroreflex control of heart rate in rats: role of insulin sensitivity. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 298:2 (2010), R419–26.
133. Kuo, C.D., Chen, G.Y., Yang, M.J., Lo, H.M., Tsai, Y.S., Biphasic changes in autonomic nervous activity during pregnancy. Br. J. Anaesth. 84:3 (2000), 323–329.
134. Speranza, G., Verlato, G., Albiero, A., Autonomic changes during pregnancy: assessment by spectral heart rate variability analysis. J. Electrocardiol. 31:2 (1998), 101–109.
135. Jarvis, S.S., Shibata, S., Bivens, T.B., Okada, Y., Casey, B.M., Levine, B.D., Fu, Q., Sympathetic activation during early pregnancy in humans. J. Physiol. 590:Pt 15 (2012), 3535–3543.
136. Besnier, F., Labrunee, M., Pathak, A., Pavy-Le Traon, A., Gales, C., Senard, J.M., Guiraud, T., Exercise training-induced modification in autonomic nervous system: an update for cardiac patients. Ann. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 60:1 (2017), 27–35.
137. Carpenter, R.E., Emery, S.J., Uzun, O., Rassi, D., Lewis, M.J., Influence of physical exercise on baroreceptor sensitivity during pregnancy. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 30:5 (2017), 514–519.
138. May, L.E., Knowlton, J., Hanson, J., Suminski, R., Paynter, C., Fang, X., Gustafson, K.M., Effects of exercise during pregnancy on maternal heart rate and heart rate variability. PM R 8:7 (2016), 611–617.
139. Hayward, C.E., Lean, S., Sibley, C.P., Jones, R.L., Wareing, M., Greenwood, S.L., Dilworth, M.R., Placental adaptation: what can we learn from Birthweight: placental weight ratio?. Front. Physiol., 7, 2016, 28.
140. Fowden, A.L., Sferruzzi-Perri, A.N., Coan, P.M., Constancia, M., Burton, G.J., Placental efficiency and adaptation: endocrine regulation. J. Physiol. 587:Pt 14 (2009), 3459–3472.
141. Wilson, M.E., Ford, S.P., Comparative aspects of placental efficiency. Reprod. Suppl. 58 (2001), 223–232.
142. Bergmann, A., Zygmunt, M., Clapp, J.F. 3rd, Running throughout pregnancy: effect on placental villous vascular volume and cell proliferation. Placenta 25:8-9 (2004), 694–698.
143. Jackson, M.R., Gott, P., Lye, S.J., Ritchie, J.W., Clapp, J.F. 3rd, The effects of maternal aerobic exercise on human placental development: placental volumetric composition and surface areas. Placenta 16:2 (1995), 179–191.
144. Ramirez-Velez, R., Bustamante, J., Czerniczyniec, A., Aguilar de Plata, A.C., Lores-Arnaiz, S., Effect of exercise training on eNOS expression, NO production and oxygen metabolism in human placenta. PLoS One, 8(11), 2013, e80225.
145. Kato, K., Tokuda, H., Adachi, S., Matsushima-Nishiwaki, R., Yamauchi, J., Natsume, H., Minamitani, C., Mizutani, J., Otsuka, T., Kozawa, O., Role of heat shock protein 27 in transforming growth factor-beta-stimulated vascular endothelial growth factor release in osteoblasts. Int. J. Mol. Med. 27:3 (2011), 423–428.
146. Ou, J., Fontana, J.T., Ou, Z., Jones, D.W., Ackerman, A.W., Oldham, K.T., Yu, J., Sessa, W.C., Pritchard, K.A. Jr., Heat shock protein 90 and tyrosine kinase regulate eNOS NO* generation but not NO* bioactivity. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 286:2 (2004), H561–H569.
147. Gilbert, J.S., Banek, C.T., Bauer, A.J., Gingery, A., Needham, K., Exercise training attenuates placental ischemia-induced hypertension and angiogenic imbalance in the rat. Hypertension 60:6 (2012), 1545–1551.
148. Brett, K.E., Ferraro, Z.M., Holcik, M., Adamo, K.B., Prenatal physical activity and diet composition affect the expression of nutrient transporters and mTOR signaling molecules in the human placenta. Placenta 36:2 (2015), 204–212.
149. Rice, M.M., Landon, M.B., Varner, M.W., Casey, B.M., Reddy, U.M., Wapner, R.J., Rouse, D.J., Tita, A.T.N., Thorp, J.M. Jr., Chien, E.K., Saade, G., Peaceman, A.M., Blackwell, S.C., Eunice, H., Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child, N. Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units, Pregnancy-associated hypertension and offspring cardiometabolic health. Obstet. Gynecol. 131:2 (2018), 313–321.
150. Gregg, V.H., Ferguson, J.E. 2nd, Exercise in pregnancy. Clin. Sports Med. 36:4 (2017), 741–752.
151. Kasawara, K.T., do Nascimento, S.L., Costa, M.L., Surita, F.G., e Silva, J.L., Exercise and physical activity in the prevention of pre-eclampsia: systematic review. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 91:10 (2012), 1147–1157.