Diet and Ecology of Neanderthals: Implications from C and N Isotopes: Insights from Bone and Tooth Biogeochemistry

Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology

Volumn , Issue 9789400704145, 2011, Pages 73-85

  Bocherens, Hervé ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Carbon; Megaherbivores; Nitrogen; OIS 3; Prey; Stable isotopes

Indexed keywords

EID: 85045980702     PISSN: 18779077     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-0415-2_8     Document Type: Chapter

References (112)

1. Adler, D. S., Bar-Oz, G., Belfer-Cohen, A., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2006). Ahead of the Game. Middle and Upper Palaeolithic hunting behaviors in the Southern Caucasus. Current Anthropology, 47, 89–118.
2. Ambrose, S. H. (1990). Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science, 17, 431–451.
3. Ambrose, S. H. (1991). Effects of diet, climate and physiology on nitrogen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 293–317.
4. Ambrose, S. H., & DeNiro, M. J. (1986). The isotopic ecology of East African mammals. Oecologia, 69, 395–406.
5. Amundson, R., Austin, A. T., Schuur, E. A. G., Yoo, K., Matzek, V., Kendall, C., Uebersax, A., Brenner, D., & Baisden, W. T. (2003). Global patterns of the isotopic composition of soil and plant nitrogen. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(1), 1031.
6. Asara, J. M., Schweitzer, M. H., Freimark, L. M., Phillips, M., & Cantley, L. C. (2007). Protein sequences from Mastodon and Tyrannosaurus rex revealed by mass spectrometry. Science, 316, 280–285.
7. Auguste, P. (1995). Chasse et charognage au paléolithique moyen: l’apport du gisement de Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 92, 155–167.
8. Auguste, P., Moncel, M.-H., & Patou-Mathis, M. (1998). Chasse ou “charognage”: acquisition et traitement des Rhinocéros au Paléolithique moyen en Europe Occidentale. In J.-P. Brugal, L. Meignen, & M. Patou-Mathis (Eds.), Actes du XIIIème Colloque d’Antibes, Economie préhistorique: les comportements de subsistance au Paléolithique, 23–25 octobre 1997 (pp. 133–151). CNRS Edition, APDCA, Sophia Antipolis.
9. Ayliffe, L. K., Chivas, A. R., & Leakey, M. G. (1994). The retention of primary oxygen isotope compositions of fossil elephant skeletal phosphate. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 85, 5291–5298.
10. Balasse, M., Bocherens, H., Tresset, A., Mariotti, A., & Vigne, J.-D. (1997). Émergence de la production laitière au néolithique? Contribution de l’analyse isotopique d’ossements de bovins archéologiques. Comptes rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Paris. Série IIA. Science de la terre et des planètes, 325, 1005–1010.
11. Balasse, M., Bocherens, H., Ambrose, S. H., & Mariotti, A. (2001). Detection of dietary changes by intra-tooth carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis: An experimental study of dentine collagen of cattle (Bos taurus). Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 235–245.
12. Balter, V., & Simon, L. (2006). Diet and behavior of the Saint-Césaire Neanderthal inferred from biogeochemical data inversion. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 329–338.
13. 14N in mammals. Oecologia, 147, 212–222.
14. Barnes, I., Matheus, P., Shapiro, B., Jensen, D., & Cooper, A. (2002). Dynamics of Pleistocene population extinctions in Beringian brown bears. Science, 295, 2267–2270.
15. 15N) in Pleistocene mammals. In M. A. Katzenberg & S. H. Ambrose (Eds.), Biogeochemical approaches to Paleodietary analyses (pp. 65–88). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
16. Bocherens, H. (2003). Isotopic biogeochemistry and the paleoecology of the mammoth steppe fauna. In W. F. Reumer, F. Braber, D. Mol, & J. de Vos (Eds.), Advances in Mammoth research (pp. 57–76). Rotterdam: Deinsea.
17. Bocherens, H., & Drucker, D. (2003). Trophic level isotopic enrich-ments for carbon and nitrogen in collagen: Case studies from recent and ancient terrestrial ecosystems. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13, 46–53.
18. Bocherens, H., & Mariotti, A. (1997). Comments on: Diet, physiology and ecology of fossil mammals as inferred from stable carbon and nitrogen isotope biochemistry: Implications for Pleistocene bears by Bocherens et al. - Reply. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 128, 362–364.
19. Bocherens, H., & Rousseau, L. (2008). Chapitre 8: Le cadre environ-nemental des occupations humains. Isotopes sur grands mammifères et plancher stalagmitique. In M.-H. Moncel (Ed.), Le site de Payre: occupations humaines dans la vallée du Rhône à la fin du Pleistocène moyen et au début du Pleistocène supérieur. Mémoire de la Société préhistorique française (46, pp. 113–122). Société préhistorique française, Paris.
20. 15N de la matière organique fossile de Dinosaure. Application à l'étude du régime alimentaire du genre Anatosaurus (Ornithischia, Hadrosauridae). Comptes rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Paris. Série IIA. Science de la terre et des planètes, 306, 1521–1526.
21. 15N) of fossil vertebrate collagen: Implications for the study of fossil food web including Neandertal Man. Journal of Human Evolution, 20, 481–492.
22. Bocherens, H., Fizet, M., & Mariotti, A. (1994). Diet, physiology and ecology of fossil mammals as inferred by stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes biogeochemistry: Implications for Pleistocene bears. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 107, 213–225.
23. Bocherens, H., Fogel, M. L., Tuross, N., & Zeder, M. (1995). Trophic structure and climatic information from isotopic signatures in a Pleistocene cave fauna of Southern England. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22, 327–340.
24. 15N) of fossil mammal collagen from Scladina cave (Sclayn, Belgium). Quaternary Research, 48, 370–380.
25. Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Patou-Mathis, M., Otte, M., Bonjean, D., Toussaint, M., & Mariotti, A. (1999). Paleoenvironmental and paleodietary implications of isotopic biogeochemistry of late interglacial Neandertal and mammal bones in Scladina Cave (Belgium). Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 599–607.
26. 15N) in Southwestern Asia. In H. Buitenhuis, M. Mashkour, & F. Poplin (Eds.), Archeozoology of the Near East IV (pp. 104–115). Groningen: ARC 32 (B).
27. Bocherens, H., Drucker, D., & Billiou, D. (2005a). Paléoenvironnements et Hominidés: Approches biogéochimiques. In A. Tuffreau (Ed.), Peuplements humains et variations environnementales au Quaternaire (BAR International Series 1352, pp. 55–68). Oxford: Archaeopress.
28. Bocherens, H., Drucker, D. G., Billiou, D., Patou-Mathis, M., & Vandermeersch, B. (2005b). Isotopic evidence for diet and subsistence pattern of the Saint-Césaire I Neanderthal: Review and use of a multi-source mixing model. Journal of Human Evolution, 49, 71–87.
29. Bocherens, H., Hofreiter, M., Münzel, S. C., & Conard, N. J. (2006). Human and bear population dynamics and evolutionary trends in Southwestern Germany. 48. Tagung der Hugo Obermaier-Gesellschaft für Erforschung des Eiszeitalters und der Steinzeit (Köln, 18–22 April 2006), Erlangen, 12.
30. Bocherens, H., Conard, N. J., Germonpré, M., Hofreiter, M., Münzel, S., Stephan, E., & Tütken, T. (2007). Isotopic biogeochemistry and the evolution of cave bear ecology during Marine Oxygen Isotopic Stage 3 in Western and Central Europe. In R. Musil & V. Vávra (Eds.), 13th international Cave Bear symposium, September 20–24. Czech Republic Proceedings. Masaryk University, Brno.
31. Bolus, M., & Schmitz, R. W. (2006). Der Neandertaler. Ostfildern: Thorbecke Verlag.
32. Bratlund, B. (2000). Taubach revisited. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, 46, 61–174.
33. Cerling, T. E., & Harris, J. M. (1999). Carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bioapatite in ungulate mammals and implications for ecological and paleoecological studies. Oecologia, 120, 347–363.
34. Cerling, T. E., Hart, J. A., & Hart, J. B. (2004). Stable isotope ecology in the Ituri-Forest. Oecologia, 138, 5–12.
35. 15N abundances of maize and soil amended with urea and composted pig manure. Plant and Soil, 245, 223–232.
36. Churchill, S. E. (1998). Cold adaptation, heterochrony, and Neandertals. Evolutionary Anthropology, 7, 46–61.
37. Clayton, F., Sealy, J., & Pfeiffer, S. (2006). Weaning age among foragers at Matjes River Rock Shelter, South Africa, from stable nitrogen and carbon isotope analyses. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 129, 311–317.
38. 15N values reflect ancient human activity. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 1167–1176.
39. Conard, N. J., & Niven, L. (2001). The paleolithic finds from Bollschweil and the question of Neandertal mammoth hunting in the Black Forest. In G. Cavarretta, P. Giola, M. Mussi, & M. R. Palombo (Eds.), The world of Elephants (pp. 194–200). Roma: Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche.
40. Costamagno, S., Meignen, L., Beauval, C., Vandermeersch, B., & Maureille, B. (2006). Les Pradelles (Marillac-le-Franc, France): A Mousterian reindeer hunting camp? Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 25, 466–484.
41. DeNiro, M. J. (1985). Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to paleodietary reconstruction. Nature, 317, 806–809.
42. DeNiro, M. J., & Epstein, S. (1978). Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 42, 495–506.
43. DeNiro, M. J., & Epstein, S. (1981). Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 45, 341–351.
44. 15N natural abundance of the soil microbial biomass across a cattle manure gradient. European Journal of Soil Science, 57, 468–475.
45. Drucker, D. (2005). Ecologie des rennes chassés par les hommes préhistoriques: que peuvent dire les isotopes du carbone? Annales de la Fondation Fyssen, 20, 90–97.
46. e rencontres internationales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes (pp. 243–253). Antibes: APDCA.
47. Drucker, D., & Bocherens, H. (2004). Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes as tracers of change in diet breadth during Middle and Upper Paleolithic in Europe. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14, 162–177.
48. Drucker, D., Bocherens, H., Pike-Tay, A., & Mariotti, A. (2001). Isotopic tracking of seasonal dietary change in dentine collagen: Preliminary data from modern caribou. Comptes rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Paris. Série IIA. Science de la terre et des planètes, 333, 303–309.
49. Drucker, D., Bocherens, H., & Billiou, D. (2003a). Evidence for shifting environmental conditions in Southwestern France from 33,000 to 15,000 years ago derived from carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 natural abundances in collagen of large herbivores. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 216, 163–173.
50. Drucker, D., Bocherens, H., Bridault, A., & Billiou, D. (2003b). Carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of red deer (Cervus elaphus) collagen as a tool for tracking paleoenvironmental change during the Late-Glacial and Early Holocene in the northern Jura (France). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 195, 375–388.
51. Drucker, D., Bridault, A., Hobson, K. A., Szuma, E., & Bocherens, H. (2008). Can carbon-13 abundances in large herbivores track canopy effect in temperate and boreal ecosystems? Evidence from modern and ancient ungulates. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 266, 69–82.
52. 2, and climate. Oecologia, 112, 285–299.
53. Fedele, F. G., Biaccio, B., Isaia, R., & Orsi, G. (2002). Ecosystem impact of the Campanian ignimbrite eruption in Late Pleistocene Europe. Quaternary Research, 57, 420–424.
54. Felicetti, L. A., Schwartz, C. C., Rye, R. O., Haroldson, M. A., Gunther, K. A., Phillips, D. L., & Robbins, C. T. (2003). Use of sulfur and nitrogen stable isotopes to determine the importance of whitebark pine nuts to Yellowstone grizzly bears. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 81, 763–770.
55. Finlayson, C., & Carrión, J. S. (2007). Rapid ecological turnover and its impact on Neanderthal and other human populations. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 22, 213–222.
56. Fizet, M., Mariotti, A., Bocherens, H., Lange-Badré, B., Vandermeersch, B., Borel, J. P., & Bellon, G. (1995). Effect of diet, physiology and climate on carbon and nitrogen isotopes of collagen in a late Pleistocene anthropic paleoecosystem (France, Charente, Marillac). Journal of Archaeological Science, 22, 67–79.
57. Fogel, M. L., Tuross, N., & Owsley, D. W. (1989). Nitrogen isotope traces of human lactation in modern and archeological populations. Annual Report of the Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution 1988–1989, pp. 111–117.
58. Frank, D. A., Evans, R. D., & Tracy, B. F. (2004). The role of ammonia volatilization in controlling the natural 15N abundance of a grazed grassland. Biogeochemistry, 68, 169–178.
59. Fuller, B. T., Fuller, J. L., Harris, D. A., & Hedges, R. E. M. (2006). Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 129(2), 279–293.
60. Gröcke, D. R., Bocherens, H., & Mariotti, A. (1997). Annual rainfall and nitrogen-isotope correlation in Macropod collagen: Application as a paleoprecipitation indicator. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 153, 279–285.
61. 3 plants: Implications for paleodiet studies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 637–649.
62. Heaton, T. H. E., Vogel, J. C., von la Chevallerie, G., & Collett, G. (1986). Climatic influence on the isotopic composition of bone nitrogen. Nature, 322, 822–823.
63. Hedges, R. E. M. (2003). On bone collagen-apatite-carbonate isotopic relationships. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13, 66–79.
64. Hedges, R. E. M., & Reynard, L. M. (2007). Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archeology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1240–1251.
65. Higham, T., Bronk Ramsey, C., Karavanic, I., Smith, F. H., & Trinkaus, E. (2006). Revised direct radiocarbon dating of the Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 553–557.
66. Hilderbrand, G. V., Farley, S. D., Robbins, C. T., Hanley, T. A., Titus, K., & Servheen, C. (1996). Use of stable isotopes to determine diets of living and extinct bears. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 74, 2080–2088.
67. 15N in symbiotic fungi and plants extimates nitrogen and carbon flux rates in arctic tundra. Ecology, 87, 816–822.
68. Hockett, B., & Haws, J. A. (2005). Nutritional ecology and the human demography of Neandertal extinction. Quaternary International, 137, 21–34.
69. 15N abundance of surface soils, roots and mycor-rhizas in profiles of European forest soils. Oecologia, 108, 207–214.
70. Holmes, K. M., Robson Brown, K. A., Oates, W. P., & Collins, M. J. (2005). Assessing the distribution of African Paleolithic sites: A predicitive model of collagen degradation. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 157–166.
71. Iacumin, P., Bocherens, H., Delgado Huertas, A., Mariotti, A., & Longinelli, A. (1997). A stable isotope study of fossil mammal remains from the Paglicci cave. S. Italy. N and C as paleoenvironmental indicators. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 148, 349–357.
72. Jacobi, R. M., Higham, T. F. G., & Bronk Ramsey, C. (2006). AMS radiocarbon dating of Middle and Upper Paleolithic bone in the British Isles: Improved reliability using ultrafiltration. Journal of Quaternary Science, 21, 557–573.
73. Jones, A. M., O’Connell, T. C., Young, E. D., Scott, K., Buckingham, C. M., Iacumin, P., & Brasier, M. D. (2001). Biogeochemical data from well preserved 200 ka collagen and skeletal remains. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 193, 143–149.
74. Katzenberg, M. A., & Pfeiffer, S. (1995). Nitrogen isotope evidence for weaning age in a nineteenth century canadian skeletal sample. In A. L. Grauer (Ed.), Bodies of evidence. Reconstructing history through skeletal analysis (pp. 221–235). New York: Wiley-Liss.
75. Koch, P. L., Fisher, D. C., & Dettman, D. (1989). Oxygen isotope variation in the tusks of extinct proboscideans: A measure of season of death and seasonality. Geology, 17, 515–519.
76. Koch, P. L., Tuross, N., & Fogel, M. L. (1997). The effects of sample treatment and diagenesis on the isotopic integrity of carbonate in biogenic hydroxylapatite. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 417–429.
77. Lee-Thorp, J. A., & Sponheimer, M. (2003). Three case studies used to reassess the reliability of fossil bone and enamel isotope signals for paleodietary studies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 22, 208–216.
78. Lee-Thorp, J. A., & Sponheimer, M. (2006). Contributions of biogeochemistry to understanding Hominin dietary ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 49, 131–148.
79. Lee-Thorp, J. A., & van der Merwe, N. J. (1991). Aspects of the chemistry of modern and fossil biological apatites. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 343–354.
80. Longin, R. (1971). New method of collagen extraction for radiocarbon dating. Nature, 230, 241–242.
81. Männel, T. T., Auerswald, K., & Schnyder, H. (2007). Altitudinal gradients of grassland carbon and nitrogen isotope composition are recorded in the hair of grazers. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 16, 583–592.
82. Marean, C. W., & Assefa, Z. (1999). Zooarcheological evidence for the faunal exploitation behavior of Neandertals and Early Modern Humans. Evolutionary Anthropology, 8, 22–37.
83. McGill, B. J., Hadly, E. A., & Maurer, B. A. (2006). Community inertia of Quaternary small mammal assemblages in North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 16701–16706.
84. 15N abundance of subarctic plants provides field evidence that ericoid, ectomycorrhizal and non- and arbuscular mycor-rhizal species access different sources of soil nitrogen. Oecologia, 105, 53–63.
85. Moncel, M.-H. (2001). Microlithic Middle Paleolithic assemblages in Central Europe and elephant remains. In G. Cavarretta, P. Giola, M. Mussi, & M. R. Palombo (Eds.), The world of Elephants, Proceedings of the 1st international Congress (pp. 314–317). Roma: Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche.
86. 15N and water availability. Functional Ecology, 20, 1062–1069.
87. Neilson, R., Robinson, D., Marriott, C. A., Scrimgeour, C. M., Hamilton, D., Wishart, J., Boag, B., & Handley, L. L. (2002). Above-ground grazing affects floristic composition and modifies soil trophic interactions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 34, 1507–1512.
88. Nelson, S. V. (2005). Paleoseasonality inferred from equid teeth and intra-tooth isotopic variability. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 222, 122–144.
89. Ostrom, P. H., Macko, S. A., Engel, M. H., & Russell, D. A. (1993). Assessment of trophic structure of Cretaceous communities based on stable nitrogen isotope analyses. Geology, 21, 491–494.
90. 2, and bioapatite in different mammal. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 1459–1470.
91. Patou-Mathis, M. (2000). Neandertal subsistence behaviours in Europe. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 10, 379–395.
92. Patou-Mathis, M. (2006). Comportement de subsistance des Néandertaliens du niveau châtelperronien de Saint-Césaire (Charente-Maritime). Munib, 57, 197–204.
93. Patou-Mathis, M., Auguste, P., Bocherens, H., Condemi, S., Michel, V., Neruda, P., & Valoch, K. (2005). Les occupations du Paléolithique moyen de la grotte de Kůlna (Moravie, République Tchèque): Nouvelles approches, nouveaux résultats. In A. Tuffreau (Ed.), Peuplements humains et variations environnementales au Quaternaire (BAR International Series1352, pp. 69–94). Oxford: Archaeopress.
94. Piperno, M., & Tagliacozzo, A. (2001). The elephant butchery area at the Middle Pleistocene site of Notarchirico (Venosa, Basilicata, Italy). In G. Cavarretta, P. Giola, M. Mussi, & M. R. Palombo (Eds.), The world of Elephants, Proceedings of the 1st international Congress (pp. 230–236). Roma: Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche.
95. Rabinovitch, R., & Hovers, E. (2004). Faunal analysis from Amud Cave: Preliminary results and interpretations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14, 287–306.
96. Richards, M., Pettitt, P., Stiner, M., & Trinkhaus, E. (2001). Stable isotope evidence for increasing dietary breadth in the European mid-Upper Paleolithic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 6528–6532.
97. Richards, M. P., Fuller, B. T., Sponheimer, M., Robinson, T., & Ayliffe, L. (2003). Sulphur isotopes in paleodietary studies: A review and results from a controlled feeding experiment. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13, 37–45.
98. Robbins, C. T., Felicetti, L. A., & Sponheimer, M. (2005). The effect of dietary protein quality on nitrogen isotope discrimination in mam- mals and birds. Oecologia, 144, 534–540.
99. Rodière, É., Bocherens, H., Angibault, J.-M., & Mariotti, A. (1996). Particularités isotopiques chez le chevreuil (Capreolus capreolus L.): Implications pour les reconstitutions paléoenvironnementales. Science de la terre et des planètes, 323, 179–185.
100. Roebroeks, W., Conard, N. J., & van Kolfschoten, T. (1992). Dense forests, cold steppes, and the Paleolithic settlement of Northern Europe. Current Anthropology, 33, 551–586.
101. 13C of temperate humid grassland. Global Change Biology, 12, 1315–1329.
102. Schoeninger, M. J., & DeNiro, M. J. (1984). Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48, 625–639.
103. Scott, K. (1980). Two hunting episodes of Middle Paleolithic Age at La Cotte de Saint-Brelade, Jersey (Channel Islands). World Archaeology, 12, 137–152.
104. Sealy, J. C., van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J. A., & Lanham, J. L. (1987). Nitrogen isotope ecology in southern Africa: Implications for environmental and dietary tracing. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 51, 2707–2717.
105. Simpson, I. A., Bol, R., Bull, I. D., Evershed, R. P., Petzke, K. J., & Dockrill, S. J. (1999). Interpreting early land management through compound specific stable isotope analyses of archeological soils. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 13, 1315–1319.
106. 15N values from a controlled feeding study. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13, 80–87.
107. Stewart, J. R., van Kolfschoten, T., Markova, A., & Musil, R. (2003). The mammalian faunas of Europe during Oxygen Isotope Stage Three. In T. H. van Andel & W. Davis (Eds.), Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation (pp. 103–130). Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archeological Research.
108. Thieme, H., & Veil, S. (1985). Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Lehringen, Lkr. Verden. Die Kunde, 36, 11–58.
109. Tieszen, L. L. (1991). Natural variations in the carbon isotope values of plants: Implications for archeology, ecology, and paleoecology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 227–248.
110. van der Merwe, N. J., & Medina, E. (1991). The canopy effect, carbon isotope ratios and foodwebs in Amazonia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 249–259.
111. Weaver, T. D., & Steudel-Numbers, K. (2005). Does climate or mobility explain the differences in body proportions between Neandertals and their Upper Paleolithic successors? Evolutionary Anthropology, 14, 218–223.
112. Wyckoff, R. W. G. (1969). Sur la composition de quelques protéines dinosauriennes. Comptes rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Paris. Série IIA. Science de la terre et des planètes, 269, 1489–1491.