General Techno-Economic Analysis of CO2 Electrolysis Systems

Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research

Volumn 57, Issue 6, 2018, Pages 2165-2177

  Jouny, Matthew ^a   Luc, Wesley ^a   Jiao, Feng ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BENCHMARKING; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON MONOXIDE; ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION; PROPANOL; REDUCTION;

CHEMICALS PRODUCTIONS; ELECTROCATALYTIC PERFORMANCE; ELECTROCHEMICAL REDUCTIONS; ELECTROLYSIS SYSTEMS; FARADAIC EFFICIENCIES; LARGE SCALE PRODUCTIONS; PERFORMANCE TARGETS; TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS;

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS;

EID: 85042140129     PISSN: 08885885     EISSN: 15205045     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b03514     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. IPCC IPCC Fifth Assessment Synthesis Report; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK New York, NY, USA, 2014.
2. U.S. Energy Information Administration Annual Energy Outlook; 2017.
3. Seh, Z. W.; Kibsgaard, J.; Dickens, C. F.; Chorkendorff, I.; Norskov, J. K.; Jaramillo, T. F. Combining theory and experiment in electrocatalysis: Insights into materials design Science 2017, 355 (6321) eaad4998 10.1126/science.aad4998
4. Whipple, D. T.; Kenis, P. J. Prospects of CO2 utilization via direct heterogeneous electrochemical reduction J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2010, 1 (24) 3451-3458 10.1021/jz1012627
5. Martin, A. J.; Larrazabal, G. O.; Perez-Ramirez, J. Towards sustainable fuels and chemicals through the electrochemical reduction of CO2: lessons from water electrolysis Green Chem. 2015, 17 (12) 5114-5130 10.1039/C5GC01893E
6. Goeppert, A.; Czaun, M.; Jones, J. P.; Surya Prakash, G. K.; Olah, G. A. Recycling of carbon dioxide to methanol and derived products-closing the loop Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43 (23) 7995-8048 10.1039/C4CS00122B
7. Mikkelsen, M.; Jørgensen, M.; Krebs, F. C. The teraton challenge. A review of fixation and transformation of carbon dioxide Energy Environ. Sci. 2010, 3 (1) 43-81 10.1039/B912904A
8. Li, H.; Liao, J. C. Biological conversion of carbon dioxide to photosynthetic fuels and electrofuels Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 6 (10) 2892 10.1039/c3ee41847b
9. Li, Y.; Sun, Q. Recent Advances in Breaking Scaling Relations for Effective Electrochemical Conversion of CO2 Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6 (17) 1600463 10.1002/aenm.201600463
10. Luc, W.; Rosen, J.; Jiao, F. An Ir-based anode for a practical CO 2 electrolyzer Catal. Today 2017, 288, 79-84 10.1016/j.cattod.2016.06.011
11. Delacourt, C.; Ridgway, P. L.; Kerr, J. B.; Newman, J. Design of an Electrochemical Cell Making Syngas (CO+H2) from CO2 and H2O Reduction at Room Temperature J. Electrochem. Soc. 2008, 155 (1) B42-B49 10.1149/1.2801871
12. Dufek, E. J.; Lister, T. E.; McIlwain, M. E. Bench-scale electrochemical system for generation of CO and syn-gas J. Appl. Electrochem. 2011, 41 (6) 623-631 10.1007/s10800-011-0271-6
13. Yang, H.; Kaczur, J. J.; Sajjad, S. D.; Masel, R. I. Electrochemical conversion of CO 2 to formic acid utilizing Sustainion membranes Journal of CO2 Utilization 2017, 20, 208-217 10.1016/j.jcou.2017.04.011
14. Pletcher, D. The cathodic reduction of carbon dioxide-What can it realistically achieve? A mini review Electrochem. Commun. 2015, 61, 97-101 10.1016/j.elecom.2015.10.006
15. Kuhl, K. P.; Cave, E. R.; Abram, D. N.; Jaramillo, T. F. New insights into the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide on metallic copper surfaces Energy Environ. Sci. 2012, 5 (5) 7050-7059 10.1039/c2ee21234j
16. Kuhl, K. P.; Hatsukade, T.; Cave, E. R.; Abram, D. N.; Kibsgaard, J.; Jaramillo, T. F. Electrocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide to methane and methanol on transition metal surfaces J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136 (40) 14107-13 10.1021/ja505791r
17. Independent Chemical Information Services https://www.icis.com/.
18. U.S. Energy Information Administration https://www.eia.gov/.
19. Lu, Q.; Jiao, F. Electrochemical CO2 reduction: Electrocatalyst, reaction mechanism, and process engineering Nano Energy 2016, 29, 439 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.04.009
20. Gasification & Syngas Technologies Council http://www.gasification-syngas.org.
21. TechnipFMC http://www.technip.com/en.
22. Mondal, P.; Dang, G. S.; Garg, M. O. Syngas production through gasification and cleanup for downstream applications-Recent developments Fuel Process. Technol. 2011, 92 (8) 1395-1410 10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.03.021
23. International Gas Union http://www.igu.org/.
24. U.S. Depertment of Energy Alternative Fuels Data Center https://www.afdc.energy.gov/.
25. 2 Reduction on Metal Electrodes. In Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry; Vayenas, C. G.; White, R. E.; Gamboa-Aldeco, M. E., Eds.; Springer New York: New York, NY, 2008; pp 89-189.
26. Hori, Y.; Wakebe, H.; Tsukamoto, T.; Koga, O. Electrocatalytic process of CO selectivity in electrochemical reduction of CO2 at metal electrodes in aqueous media Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39 (11) 1833-1839 10.1016/0013-4686(94)85172-7
27. Lu, Q.; Rosen, J.; Zhou, Y.; Hutchings, G. S.; Kimmel, Y. C.; Chen, J. G.; Jiao, F. A selective and efficient electrocatalyst for carbon dioxide reduction Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3242 10.1038/ncomms4242
28. Zhang, S.; Kang, P.; Meyer, T. J. Nanostructured Tin Catalysts for Selective Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Formate J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136 (5) 1734-1737 10.1021/ja4113885
29. Zhu, W.; Michalsky, R.; Metin, Ö.; Lv, H.; Guo, S.; Wright, C. J.; Sun, X.; Peterson, A. A.; Sun, S. Monodisperse Au Nanoparticles for Selective Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 to CO J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (45) 16833-16836 10.1021/ja409445p
30. Chen, Y.; Li, C. W.; Kanan, M. W. Aqueous CO2 Reduction at Very Low Overpotential on Oxide-Derived Au Nanoparticles J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134 (49) 19969-19972 10.1021/ja309317u
31. Li, C. W.; Kanan, M. W. CO2 reduction at low overpotential on Cu electrodes resulting from the reduction of thick Cu2O films J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134 (17) 7231-4 10.1021/ja3010978
32. Ren, D.; Ang, B. S.-H.; Yeo, B. S. Tuning the Selectivity of Carbon Dioxide Electroreduction toward Ethanol on Oxide-Derived CuxZn Catalysts ACS Catal. 2016, 6, 8239-8247 10.1021/acscatal.6b02162
33. Luc, W.; Collins, C.; Wang, S.; Xin, H.; He, K.; Kang, Y.; Jiao, F. Ag-Sn Bimetallic Catalyst with a Core-Shell Structure for CO2 Reduction J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139 (5) 1885-1893 10.1021/jacs.6b10435
34. 2 reduction in ionic liquid Science 2016, 353 (6298) 467-470 10.1126/science.aaf4767
35. Asadi, M.; Kumar, B.; Behranginia, A.; Rosen, B. A.; Baskin, A.; Repnin, N.; Pisasale, D.; Phillips, P.; Zhu, W.; Haasch, R.; Klie, R. F.; Král, P.; Abiade, J.; Salehi-Khojin, A. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 4470 10.1038/ncomms5470
36. Wu, J.; Ma, S.; Sun, J.; Gold, J. I.; Tiwary, C.; Kim, B.; Zhu, L.; Chopra, N.; Odeh, I. N.; Vajtai, R.; Yu, A. Z.; Luo, R.; Lou, J.; Ding, G.; Kenis, P. J. A.; Ajayan, P. M. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 13869 10.1038/ncomms13869
37. Zhang, S.; Kang, P.; Ubnoske, S.; Brennaman, M. K.; Song, N.; House, R. L.; Glass, J. T.; Meyer, T. J. Polyethylenimine-Enhanced Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 to Formate at Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Nanomaterials J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136 (22) 7845-7848 10.1021/ja5031529
38. Ma, S.; Luo, R.; Moniri, S.; Lan, Y.; Kenis, P. J. A. Efficient Electrochemical Flow System with Improved Anode for the Conversion of CO2 to CO J. Electrochem. Soc. 2014, 161 (10) F1124-F1131 10.1149/2.1201410jes
39. Verma, S.; Lu, X.; Ma, S.; Masel, R. I.; Kenis, P. J. A. The effect of electrolyte composition on the electroreduction of CO2 to CO on Ag based gas diffusion electrodes Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2016, 18 (10) 7075-7084 10.1039/C5CP05665A
40. Wu, K.; Birgersson, E.; Kim, B.; Kenis, P. J. A.; Karimi, I. A. Modeling and Experimental Validation of Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to CO in a Microfluidic Cell J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162 (1) F23-F32 10.1149/2.1021414jes
41. Jhong, H.-R. M.; Brushett, F. R.; Kenis, P. J. A. The Effects of Catalyst Layer Deposition Methodology on Electrode Performance Adv. Energy Mater. 2013, 3 (5) 589-599 10.1002/aenm.201200759
42. Jhong, H.-R. M.; Ma, S.; Kenis, P. J. A. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to useful chemicals: current status, remaining challenges, and future opportunities Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 2013, 2 (2) 191-199 10.1016/j.coche.2013.03.005
43. Furuya, N.; Koide, S. Electroreduction of carbon dioxide by metal phthalocyanines Electrochim. Acta 1991, 36 (8) 1309-1313 10.1016/0013-4686(91)80010-6
44. Kaneco, S.; Iiba, K.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Saji, A. Electrochemical reduction of CO2 at an Ag electrode in KOH-methanol at low temperature Electrochim. Acta 1998, 44 (4) 573-578 10.1016/S0013-4686(98)00178-9
45. Kaneco, S.; Iiba, K.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Saji, A. Electrochemical reduction of CO2 on Au in KOH + methanol at low temperature J. Electroanal. Chem. 1998, 441 (1) 215-220 10.1016/S0022-0728(97)00438-5
46. Gao, D.; Zhou, H.; Wang, J.; Miao, S.; Yang, F.; Wang, G.; Wang, J.; Bao, X. Size-Dependent Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 over Pd Nanoparticles J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137 (13) 4288-4291 10.1021/jacs.5b00046
47. Rasul, S.; Anjum, D. H.; Jedidi, A.; Minenkov, Y.; Cavallo, L.; Takanabe, K. A Highly Selective Copper-Indium Bimetallic Electrocatalyst for the Electrochemical Reduction of Aqueous CO2 to CO Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2015, 54 (7) 2146-2150 10.1002/anie.201410233
48. Kornienko, N.; Zhao, Y.; Kley, C. S.; Zhu, C.; Kim, D.; Lin, S.; Chang, C. J.; Yaghi, O. M.; Yang, P. Metal-Organic Frameworks for Electrocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137 (44) 14129-14135 10.1021/jacs.5b08212
49. Zhou, L. Q.; Ling, C.; Jones, M.; Jia, H. Selective CO2 reduction on a polycrystalline Ag electrode enhanced by anodization treatment Chem. Commun. 2015, 51 (100) 17704-17707 10.1039/C5CC06752A
50. Ma, S.; Luo, R.; Gold, J. I.; Yu, A. Z.; Kim, B.; Kenis, P. J. A. Carbon nanotube containing Ag catalyst layers for efficient and selective reduction of carbon dioxide J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4 (22) 8573-8578 10.1039/C6TA00427J
51. Wang, H.; Chen, Y.; Hou, X.; Ma, C.; Tan, T. Nitrogen-doped graphenes as efficient electrocatalysts for the selective reduction of carbon dioxide to formate in aqueous solution Green Chem. 2016, 18 (11) 3250-3256 10.1039/C6GC00410E
52. Sen, S.; Liu, D.; Palmore, G. T. R. Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 at Copper Nanofoams ACS Catal. 2014, 4 (9) 3091-3095 10.1021/cs500522g
53. Furuya, N.; Yamazaki, T.; Shibata, M. High performance Ru Pd catalysts for CO2 reduction at gas-diffusion electrodes J. Electroanal. Chem. 1997, 431 (1) 39-41 10.1016/S0022-0728(97)00159-9
54. Gao, S.; Lin, Y.; Jiao, X.; Sun, Y.; Luo, Q.; Zhang, W.; Li, D.; Yang, J.; Xie, Y. Partially oxidized atomic cobalt layers for carbon dioxide electroreduction to liquid fuel Nature 2016, 529 (7584) 68-71 10.1038/nature16455
55. Won, D. H.; Choi, C. H.; Chung, J.; Chung, M. W.; Kim, E.-H.; Woo, S. I. Rational Design of a Hierarchical Tin Dendrite Electrode for Efficient Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 ChemSusChem 2015, 8 (18) 3092-3098 10.1002/cssc.201500694
56. Kortlever, R.; Peters, I.; Koper, S.; Koper, M. T. M. Electrochemical CO2 Reduction to Formic Acid at Low Overpotential and with High Faradaic Efficiency on Carbon-Supported Bimetallic Pd-Pt Nanoparticles ACS Catal. 2015, 5 (7) 3916-3923 10.1021/acscatal.5b00602
57. Summers, D. P.; Leach, S.; Frese, K. W. The electrochemical reduction of aqueous carbon dioxide to methanol at molybdenum electrodes with low overpotentials J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem. 1986, 205 (1) 219-232 10.1016/0022-0728(86)90233-0
58. Frese, K. W. Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 at Intentionally Oxidized Copper Electrodes J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138 (11) 3338-3344 10.1149/1.2085411
59. Bandi, A.; Kühne, H. M. Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide in Water: Analysis of Reaction Mechanism on Ruthenium-Titanium-Oxide J. Electrochem. Soc. 1992, 139 (6) 1605-1610 10.1149/1.2069464
60. Popić, J. P.; Avramov-Ivić, M. L.; Vuković, N. B. Reduction of carbon dioxide on ruthenium oxide and modified ruthenium oxide electrodes in 0.5 M NaHCO3 J. Electroanal. Chem. 1997, 421 (1) 105-110 10.1016/S0022-0728(96)04823-1
61. Kobayashi, T.; Takahashi, H. Novel CO2 Electrochemical Reduction to Methanol for H2 Storage Energy Fuels 2004, 18 (1) 285-286 10.1021/ef030121v
62. Le, M.; Ren, M.; Zhang, Z.; Sprunger, P. T.; Kurtz, R. L.; Flake, J. C. Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to CH3OH at Copper Oxide Surfaces J. Electrochem. Soc. 2011, 158 (5) E45-E49 10.1149/1.3561636
63. Hara, K.; Sakata, T. Electrocatalytic Formation of CH4 from CO2 on a Pt Gas Diffusion Electrode J. Electrochem. Soc. 1997, 144 (2) 539-545 10.1149/1.1837445
64. Takahashi, I.; Koga, O.; Hoshi, N.; Hori, Y. Electrochemical reduction of CO2 at copper single crystal Cu(S)-[n(111)×(111)] and Cu(S)-[n(110)×(100)] electrodes J. Electroanal. Chem. 2002, 533 (1) 135-143 10.1016/S0022-0728(02)01081-1
65. Yano, H.; Tanaka, T.; Nakayama, M.; Ogura, K. Selective electrochemical reduction of CO2 to ethylene at a three-phase interface on copper(I) halide-confined Cu-mesh electrodes in acidic solutions of potassium halides J. Electroanal. Chem. 2004, 565 (2) 287-293 10.1016/j.jelechem.2003.10.021
66. Loiudice, A.; Lobaccaro, P.; Kamali, E. A.; Thao, T.; Huang, B. H.; Ager, J. W.; Buonsanti, R. Tailoring Copper Nanocrystals towards C2 Products in Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2016, 55 (19) 5789-5792 10.1002/anie.201601582
67. Song, Y.; Peng, R.; Hensley, D. K.; Bonnesen, P. V.; Liang, L.; Wu, Z.; Meyer, H. M.; Chi, M.; Ma, C.; Sumpter, B. G.; Rondinone, A. J. High-Selectivity Electrochemical Conversion of CO2 to Ethanol using a Copper Nanoparticle/N-Doped Graphene Electrode ChemistrySelect 2016, 1 (19) 6055-6061 10.1002/slct.201601169
68. Manthiram, K.; Beberwyck, B. J.; Alivisatos, A. P. Enhanced Electrochemical Methanation of Carbon Dioxide with a Dispersible Nanoscale Copper Catalyst J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136 (38) 13319-13325 10.1021/ja5065284
69. Kwon, Y.; Lum, Y.; Clark, E. L.; Ager, J. W.; Bell, A. T. CO2 Electroreduction with Enhanced Ethylene and Ethanol Selectivity by Nanostructuring Polycrystalline Copper ChemElectroChem 2016, 3 (6) 1012-1019 10.1002/celc.201600068
70. Ma, S.; Sadakiyo, M.; Luo, R.; Heima, M.; Yamauchi, M.; Kenis, P. J. A. One-step electrosynthesis of ethylene and ethanol from CO2 in an alkaline electrolyzer J. Power Sources 2016, 301, 219-228 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.09.124
71. Chen, C. S.; Wan, J. H.; Yeo, B. S. Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Ethane Using Nanostructured Cu2O-Derived Copper Catalyst and Palladium(II) Chloride J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119 (48) 26875-26882 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b09144
72. Ohya, S.; Kaneco, S.; Katsumata, H.; Suzuki, T.; Ohta, K. Electrochemical reduction of CO2 in methanol with aid of CuO and Cu2O Catal. Today 2009, 148 (3) 329-334 10.1016/j.cattod.2009.07.077
73. Kopljar, D.; Wagner, N.; Klemm, E. Transferring Electrochemical CO2 Reduction from Semi-Batch into Continuous Operation Mode Using Gas Diffusion Electrodes Chem. Eng. Technol. 2016, 39 (11) 2042-2050 10.1002/ceat.201600198
74. Sen, S.; Skinn, B.; Hall, T.; Inman, M.; Taylor, E. J.; Brushett, F. R. Pulsed Electrodeposition of Tin Electrocatalysts onto Gas Diffusion Layers for Carbon Dioxide Reduction to Formate MRS Advances 2017, 2 (8) 451-458 10.1557/adv.2016.652
75. McCrory, C. C. L.; Jung, S.; Ferrer, I. M.; Chatman, S. M.; Peters, J. C.; Jaramillo, T. F. Benchmarking Hydrogen Evolving Reaction and Oxygen Evolving Reaction Electrocatalysts for Solar Water Splitting Devices J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137 (13) 4347-4357 10.1021/ja510442p
76. Pérez-Fortes, M.; Schöneberger, J. C.; Boulamanti, A.; Harrison, G.; Tzimas, E. Formic acid synthesis using CO2 as raw material: Techno-economic and environmental evaluation and market potential Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2016, 41 (37) 16444-16462 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.199
77. Li, X.; Anderson, P.; Jhong, H.-R. M.; Paster, M.; Stubbins, J. F.; Kenis, P. J. A. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Energy Efficiency, and Cost of Synthetic Fuel Production Using Electrochemical CO2Conversion and the Fischer-Tropsch Process Energy Fuels 2016, 30 (7) 5980-5989 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b00665
78. Verma, S.; Kim, B.; Jhong, H. R.; Ma, S.; Kenis, P. J. A Gross-Margin Model for Defining Technoeconomic Benchmarks in the Electroreduction of CO2 ChemSusChem 2016, 9 (15) 1972-9 10.1002/cssc.201600394
79. Seider, W. D.; Seader, J. D.; Lewin, D. R. PRODUCT & PROCESS DESIGN PRINCIPLES: SYNTHESIS, ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION; John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
80. Ho, M. T.; Allinson, G. W.; Wiley, D. E. Factors affecting the cost of capture for Australian lignite coal fired power plants Energy Procedia 2009, 1 (1) 763-770 10.1016/j.egypro.2009.01.101
81. Raksajati, A.; Ho, M. T.; Wiley, D. E. Reducing the Cost of CO2 Capture from Flue Gases Using Aqueous Chemical Absorption Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2013, 52 (47) 16887-16901 10.1021/ie402185h
82. Sanz-Perez, E. S.; Murdock, C. R.; Didas, S. A.; Jones, C. W. Direct Capture of CO2 from Ambient Air Chem. Rev. 2016, 116 (19) 11840-11876 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173
83. Zeman, F. Reducing the cost of Ca-based direct air capture of CO2 Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (19) 11730-5 10.1021/es502887y
84. Steward, D.; Ramsden, T.; Zuboy, J., H2A Central Hydrogen Production Model, Version 3 User Guide. National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2012.
85. Wiheeb, A.; Helwani, Z.; Kim, J.; Othman, M. Pressure swing adsorption technologies for carbon dioxide capture Sep. Purif. Rev. 2016, 45 (2) 108-121 10.1080/15422119.2015.1047958
86. Tamm, D.; Persson, T.; Hulteberg, C.; Bauer, F. Biogas upgrading-Review of commercial technologies SGC Rapport 2013, 270, 1
87. Persson, M.; Jönsson, O.; Wellinger, A. In Biogas upgrading to vehicle fuel standards and grid injection; 2006.
88. Paturska, A.; Repele, M.; Bazbauers, G. Economic Assessment of Biomethane Supply System based on Natural Gas Infrastructure Energy Procedia 2015, 72, 71-78 10.1016/j.egypro.2015.06.011
89. Wolf, D.; Schmidt, R.; Block, U.; Schoenmakers, H.; Bott, K.; Kaibel, G., Production of anhydrous or substantially anhydrous formic acid. U.S. Patent US4326073 A, 1982.
90. Wiser, R.; Bolinger, M. 2014 Wind Technologies Market Report; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2015.
91. Haegel, N. M.; Margolis, R.; Buonassisi, T.; Feldman, D.; Froitzheim, A.; Garabedian, R.; Green, M.; Glunz, S.; Henning, H.-M.; Holder, B. et al. Terawatt-scale photovoltaics: Trajectories and challenges Science 2017, 356 (6334) 141-143 10.1126/science.aal1288
92. Kim, B.; Ma, S.; Jhong, H.-R. M.; Kenis, P. J. Influence of dilute feed and pH on electrochemical reduction of CO2 to CO on Ag in a continuous flow electrolyzer Electrochim. Acta 2015, 166, 271-276 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.064
93. Schlömer, S.; Bruckner, T.; Fulton, L.; Hertwich, E.; McKinnon, A.; Perczyk, D.; Roy, J.; Schaeffer, R.; Sims, R.; Smith, P. Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters Climate change 2014, 1329-1356
94. Wang, M.; Han, J.; Dunn, J. B.; Cai, H.; Elgowainy, A. Well-to-wheels energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of ethanol from corn, sugarcane and cellulosic biomass for US use Environ. Res. Lett. 2012, 7 (4) 045905 10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045905