Cardiac amyloidosis: An update on pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment

Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2018, Pages 10-21

  Siddiqi, Omar K ^a   Ruberg, Frederick L ^a  

^a BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

AL amyloidosis; Restrictive cardiomyopathy; Transthyretin amyloidosis

Indexed keywords

PREALBUMIN; TETRAMER;

ATTR AMYLOIDOSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; GENE SEQUENCE; HEART AMYLOIDOSIS; HEART MUSCLE BIOPSY; HEART TRANSPLANTATION; LONG TERM SURVIVAL; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PLASMA CELL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RESTRICTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; REVIEW; SCINTIGRAPHY; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; FAMILIAL AMYLOID POLYNEUROPATHY; GENETIC MARKER; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; HUMAN; MUTATION; PHENOTYPE; PREDICTIVE VALUE; RISK FACTOR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

AMYLOID NEUROPATHIES, FAMILIAL; CARDIOMYOPATHY, RESTRICTIVE; GENETIC MARKERS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MUTATION; PHENOTYPE; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; RISK FACTORS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 85025116505     PISSN: 10501738     EISSN: 18732615     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tcm.2017.07.004     Document Type: Review

References (92)

1. Sipe, J.D., Cohen, A.S., Review: history of the amyloid fibril. J Struct Biol 130 (2000), 88–98.
2. Falk, R.H., Alexander, K.M., Liao, R., Dorbala, S., AL (Light-Chain) cardiac amyloidosis: a review of diagnosis and therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 68 (2016), 1323–1341.
3. Gertz, M.A., Comenzo, R., Falk, R.H., Fermand, J.P., Hazenberg, B.P., Hawkins, P.N., et al. Definition of organ involvement and treatment response in immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis (AL): a consensus opinion from the 10th International Symposium on Amyloid and Amyloidosis, Tours, France, 18-22 April 2004. Am J Hematol 79 (2005), 319–328.
4. Skinner, M., Cohen, A.S., The prealbumin nature of the amyloid protein in familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP)-swedish variety. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 99 (1981), 1326–1332.
5. Costa, P.P., Figueira, A.S., Bravo, F.R., Amyloid fibril protein related to prealbumin in familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 75 (1978), 4499–4503.
6. Ruberg, F.L., Berk, J.L., Transthyretin (TTR) cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 126 (2012), 1286–1300.
7. Shin, S.C., Robinson-Papp, J., Amyloid neuropathies. Mt Sinai J Med 79 (2012), 733–748.
8. Stables, R.H., Ormerod, O.J., Atrial thrombi occurring during sinus rhythm in cardiac amyloidosis: evidence for atrial electromechanical dissociation. Heart (Br Card Soc), 75, 1996, 426.
9. Feng, D., Edwards, W.D., Oh, J.K., Chandrasekaran, K., Grogan, M., Martinez, M.W., et al. Intracardiac thrombosis and embolism in patients with cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 116 (2007), 2420–2426.
10. Feng, D., Syed, I.S., Martinez, M., Oh, J.K., Jaffe, A.S., Grogan, M., et al. Intracardiac thrombosis and anticoagulation therapy in cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 119 (2009), 2490–2497.
11. Tsai, S.B., Seldin, D.C., Wu, H., O'Hara, C., Ruberg, F.L., Sanchorawala, V., Myocardial infarction with “clean coronaries” caused by amyloid light-chain AL amyloidosis: a case report and literature review. Amyloid 18 (2011), 160–164.
12. Dorbala, S., Vangala, D., Bruyere, J. Jr., Quarta, C., Kruger, J., Padera, R., et al. Coronary microvascular dysfunction is related to abnormalities in myocardial structure and function in cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Heart Fail 2 (2014), 358–367.
13. Brenner, D.A., Jain, M., Pimentel, D.R., Wang, B., Connors, L.H., Skinner, M., et al. Human amyloidogenic light chains directly impair cardiomyocyte function through an increase in cellular oxidant stress. Circ Res 94 (2004), 1008–1010.
14. Guan, J., Mishra, S., Qiu, Y., Shi, J., Trudeau, K., Las, G., et al. Lysosomal dysfunction and impaired autophagy underlie the pathogenesis of amyloidogenic light chain-mediated cardiotoxicity. EMBO Mol Med 6 (2014), 1493–1507.
15. Migrino, R.Q., Truran, S., Gutterman, D.D., Franco, D.A., Bright, M., Schlundt, B., et al. Human microvascular dysfunction and apoptotic injury induced by AL amyloidosis light chain proteins. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 301 (2011), H2305–H2312.
16. Kyle, R.A., Linos, A., Beard, C.M., Linke, R.P., Gertz, M.A., O'Fallon, W.M., et al. Incidence and natural history of primary systemic amyloidosis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1950 through 1989. Blood 79 (1992), 1817–1822.
17. Hasserjian, R.P., Goodman, H.J., Lachmann, H.J., Muzikansky, A., Hawkins, P.N., Bone marrow findings correlate with clinical outcome in systemic AL amyloidosis patients. Histopathology 50 (2007), 567–573.
18. Merlini, G., Bellotti, V., Molecular mechanisms of amyloidosis. N Engl J Med 349 (2003), 583–596.
19. Madan, S., Kumar, S.K., Dispenzieri, A., Lacy, M.Q., Hayman, S.R., Buadi, F.K., et al. High-dose melphalan and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation for light-chain amyloidosis with cardiac involvement. Blood 119 (2012), 1117–1122.
20. Gonzalez-Lopez, E., Gagliardi, C., Dominguez, F., Quarta, C.C., de Haro-Del Moral, F.J., Milandri, A., et al. Clinical characteristics of wild-type transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis: disproving myths. Eur Heart J, 2017.
21. Cornwell, G.G. 3rd, Murdoch, W.L., Kyle, R.A., Westermark, P., Pitkanen, P., Frequency and distribution of senile cardiovascular amyloid. A clinicopathologic correlation. Am J Med 75 (1983), 618–623.
22. Gonzalez-Lopez, E., Gallego-Delgado, M., Guzzo-Merello, G., de Haro-Del Moral, F.J., Cobo-Marcos, M., Robles, C., et al. Wild-type transthyretin amyloidosis as a cause of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Eur Heart J 36 (2015), 2585–2594.
23. Cyrille, N.B., Goldsmith, J., Alvarez, J., Maurer, M.S., Prevalence and prognostic significance of low QRS voltage among the three main types of cardiac amyloidosis. Am J Cardiol 114 (2014), 1089–1093.
24. Murtagh, B., Hammill, S.C., Gertz, M.A., Kyle, R.A., Tajik, A.J., Grogan, M., Electrocardiographic findings in primary systemic amyloidosis and biopsy-proven cardiac involvement. Am J Cardiol 95 (2005), 535–537.
25. Huang, J., Zhao, S., Chen, Z., Zhang, S., Lu, M., Contribution of electrocardiogram in the differentiation of cardiac amyloidosis and nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Int Heart J 56 (2015), 522–526.
26. Picano, E., Pinamonti, B., Ferdeghini, E.M., Landini, L., Slavich, G., Orlandini, A., et al. Two-dimensional echocardiography in myocardial amyloidosis. Echocardiography (Mount Kisco, NY) 8 (1991), 253–259.
27. Rapezzi, C., Merlini, G., Quarta, C.C., Riva, L., Longhi, S., Leone, O., et al. Systemic cardiac amyloidoses: disease profiles and clinical courses of the 3 main types. Circulation 120 (2009), 1203–1212.
28. Mohty, D., Damy, T., Cosnay, P., Echahidi, N., Casset-Senon, D., Virot, P., et al. Cardiac amyloidosis: updates in diagnosis and management. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 106 (2013), 528–540.
29. Navarro, J.F., Rivera, M., Ortuno, J., Cardiac tamponade as presentation of systemic amyloidosis. Int J Cardiol 36 (1992), 107–108.
30. Piper, C., Butz, T., Farr, M., Faber, L., Oldenburg, O., Horstkotte, D., How to diagnose cardiac amyloidosis early: impact of ECG, tissue Doppler echocardiography, and myocardial biopsy. Amyloid 17 (2010), 1–9.
31. Liu, D., Hu, K., Niemann, M., Herrmann, S., Cikes, M., Stork, S., et al. Effect of combined systolic and diastolic functional parameter assessment for differentiation of cardiac amyloidosis from other causes of concentric left ventricular hypertrophy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 6 (2013), 1066–1072.
32. Senapati, A., Sperry, B.W., Grodin, J.L., Kusunose, K., Thavendiranathan, P., Jaber, W., et al. Prognostic implication of relative regional strain ratio in cardiac amyloidosis. Heart (Br Card Soc) 102 (2016), 748–754.
33. Pagourelias, E.D., Duchenne, J., Mirea, O., Vovas, G., Van Cleemput, J., Delforge, M., et al. The relation of ejection fraction and global longitudinal strain in amyloidosis: implications for differential diagnosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 9 (2016), 1358–1359.
34. Buss, S.J., Emami, M., Mereles, D., Korosoglou, G., Kristen, A.V., Voss, A., et al. Longitudinal left ventricular function for prediction of survival in systemic light-chain amyloidosis: incremental value compared with clinical and biochemical markers. J Am Coll Cardiol 60 (2012), 1067–1076.
35. Barros-Gomes, S., Williams, B., Nhola, L.F., Grogan, M., Maalouf, J.F., Dispenzieri, A., et al. Prognosis of light chain amyloidosis with preserved LVEF: added value of 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography to the current prognostic staging system. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 10 (2017), 398–407.
36. Salinaro, F., Meier-Ewert, H.K., Miller, E.J., Pandey, S., Sanchorawala, V., Berk, J.L., et al. Longitudinal systolic strain, cardiac function improvement, and survival following treatment of light-chain (AL) cardiac amyloidosis. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging, 2016 [Epub ahead of publication] PMID: 27965280.
37. Ruberg, F.L., Appelbaum, E., Davidoff, R., Ozonoff, A., Kissinger, K.V., Harrigan, C., et al. Diagnostic and prognostic utility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in light-chain cardiac amyloidosis. Am J Cardiol 103 (2009), 544–549.
38. Austin, B.A., Tang, W.H., Rodriguez, E.R., Tan, C., Flamm, S.D., Taylor, D.O., et al. Delayed hyper-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging provides incremental diagnostic and prognostic utility in suspected cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2 (2009), 1369–1377.
39. Syed, I.S., Glockner, J.F., Feng, D., Araoz, P.A., Martinez, M.W., Edwards, W.D., et al. Role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 3 (2010), 155–164.
40. Bhatti, S., Watts, E., Syed, F., Vallurupalli, S., Pandey, T., Jambekar, K., et al. Clinical and prognostic utility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in myeloma patients with suspected cardiac amyloidosis. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 17 (2016), 970–977.
41. Boynton, S.J., Geske, J.B., Dispenzieri, A., Syed, I.S., Hanson, T.J., Grogan, M., et al. LGE provides incremental prognostic information over serum biomarkers in AL cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 9 (2016), 680–686.
42. Maceira, A.M., Joshi, J., Prasad, S.K., Moon, J.C., Perugini, E., Harding, I., et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 111 (2005), 186–193.
43. Fontana, M., Pica, S., Reant, P., Abdel-Gadir, A., Treibel, T.A., Banypersad, S.M., et al. Prognostic value of late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance in cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 132 (2015), 1570–1579.
44. Mongeon, F.P., Jerosch-Herold, M., Coelho-Filho, O.R., Blankstein, R., Falk, R.H., Kwong, R.Y., Quantification of extracellular matrix expansion by CMR in infiltrative heart disease. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 5 (2012), 897–907.
45. Gillmore, J.D., Maurer, M.S., Falk, R.H., Merlini, G., Damy, T., Dispenzieri, A., et al. Nonbiopsy diagnosis of cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis. Circulation 133 (2016), 2404–2412.
46. Castano, A., Haq, M., Narotsky, D.L., Goldsmith, J., Weinberg, R.L., Morgenstern, R., et al. Multicenter study of planar technetium 99m Pyrophosphate cardiac imaging: predicting survival for patients with ATTR cardiac amyloidosis. JAMA Cardiol 1 (2016), 880–889.
47. Dorbala, S., Vangala, D., Semer, J., Strader, C., Bruyere, J.R. Jr., Di Carli, M.F., et al. Imaging cardiac amyloidosis: a pilot study using (1)(8)F-florbetapir positron emission tomography. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 41 (2014), 1652–1662.
48. Lee, S.P., Lee, E.S., Choi, H., Im, H.J., Koh, Y., Lee, M.H., et al. 11C-Pittsburgh B PET imaging in cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 8 (2015), 50–59.
49. Connors, L.H., Sam, F., Skinner, M., Salinaro, F., Sun, F., Ruberg, F.L., et al. Heart failure resulting from age-related cardiac amyloid disease associated with wild-type transthyretin: a prospective, observational cohort study. Circulation 133 (2016), 282–290.
50. Gertz, M.A., Li, C.Y., Shirahama, T., Kyle, R.A., Utility of subcutaneous fat aspiration for the diagnosis of systemic amyloidosis (immunoglobulin light chain). Arch Intern Med 148 (1988), 929–933.
51. Libbey, C.A., Skinner, M., Cohen, A.S., Use of abdominal fat tissue aspirate in the diagnosis of systemic amyloidosis. Arch Intern Med 143:8 (1983), 1549–1552.
52. Siddiqi, O.K., Ruberg, F.L., Challenging the myths of cardiac amyloidosis. Eur Heart J, 2017 [Epub ahead of publication] PMID: 28444296.
53. Muchtar, E., Jevremovic, D., Dispenzieri, A., Dingli, D., Buadi, F.K., Lacy, M.Q., et al. The prognostic value of multiparametric flow cytometry in AL amyloidosis at diagnosis and at the end of first-line treatment. Blood 129 (2017), 82–87.
54. Dispenzieri, A., Gertz, M.A., Kyle, R.A., Lacy, M.Q., Burritt, M.F., Therneau, T.M., et al. Serum cardiac troponins and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide: a staging system for primary systemic amyloidosis. J Clin Oncol 22 (2004), 3751–3757.
55. Kumar, S., Dispenzieri, A., Lacy, M.Q., Hayman, S.R., Buadi, F.K., Colby, C., et al. Revised prognostic staging system for light chain amyloidosis incorporating cardiac biomarkers and serum free light chain measurements. J Clin Oncol 30 (2012), 989–995.
56. Grogan, M., Scott, C.G., Kyle, R.A., Zeldenrust, S.R., Gertz, M.A., Lin, G., et al. Natural history of wild-type transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis and risk stratification using a novel staging system. J Am Coll Cardiol 68 (2016), 1014–1020.
57. Pinney, J.H., Whelan, C.J., Petrie, A., Dungu, J., Banypersad, S.M., Sattianayagam, P., et al. Senile systemic amyloidosis: clinical features at presentation and outcome. J Am Heart Assoc, 2, 2013, e000098.
58. Jacobson, D.R., Alexander, A.A., Tagoe, C., Buxbaum, J.N., Prevalence of the amyloidogenic transthyretin (TTR) V122I allele in 14 333 African-Americans. Amyloid 22 (2015), 171–174.
59. Arruda-Olson, A.M., Zeldenrust, S.R., Dispenzieri, A., Gertz, M.A., Miller, F.A., Bielinski, S.J., et al. Genotype, echocardiography, and survival in familial transthyretin amyloidosis. Amyloid 20 (2013), 263–268.
60. Ruberg, F.L., Maurer, M.S., Judge, D.P., Zeldenrust, S., Skinner, M., Kim, A.Y., et al. Prospective evaluation of the morbidity and mortality of wild-type and V122I mutant transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy: the Transthyretin Amyloidosis Cardiac Study (TRACS). Am Heart J, 164, 2012 222-8.e1.
61. Gertz, M.A., Benson, M.D., Dyck, P.J., Grogan, M., Coelho, T., Cruz, M., et al. Diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of transthyretin amyloidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 66 (2015), 2451–2466.
62. Pollak, A., Falk, R.H., Left ventricular systolic dysfunction precipitated by verapamil in cardiac amyloidosis. Chest 104 (1993), 618–620.
63. Tan, N.Y., Mohsin, Y., Hodge, D.O., Lacy, M.Q., Packer, D.L., Dispenzieri, A., et al. Catheter ablation for atrial arrhythmias in patients with cardiac amyloidosis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 27 (2016), 1167–1173.
64. Hamon, D., Algalarrondo, V., Gandjbakhch, E., Extramiana, F., Marijon, E., Elbaz, N., et al. Outcome and incidence of appropriate implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy in patients with cardiac amyloidosis. Int J Cardiol 222 (2016), 562–568.
65. Lin, G., Dispenzieri, A., Kyle, R., Grogan, M., Brady, P.A., Implantable cardioverter defibrillators in patients with cardiac amyloidosis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 24 (2013), 793–798.
66. Holmgren, G., Ericzon, B.G., Groth, C.G., Steen, L., Suhr, O., Andersen, O., et al. Clinical improvement and amyloid regression after liver transplantation in hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. Lancet (London, England). 341 (1993), 1113–1116.
67. Suhr, O.B., Herlenius, G., Friman, S., Ericzon, B.G., Liver transplantation for hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. Liver transplantation: official publication of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the International Liver Transplantation. Society 6 (2000), 263–276.
68. Liepnieks, J.J., Zhang, L.Q., Benson, M.D., Progression of transthyretin amyloid neuropathy after liver transplantation. Neurology 75 (2010), 324–327.
69. Kpodonu, J., Massad, M.G., Caines, A., Geha, A.S., Outcome of heart transplantation in patients with amyloid cardiomyopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant 24 (2005), 1763–1765.
70. Castano, A., Helmke, S., Alvarez, J., Delisle, S., Maurer, M.S., Diflunisal for ATTR cardiac amyloidosis. Congest Heart Fail (Greenwich, Conn). 18 (2012), 315–319.
71. Berk, J.L., Suhr, O.B., Obici, L., Sekijima, Y., Zeldenrust, S.R., Yamashita, T., et al. Repurposing diflunisal for familial amyloid polyneuropathy: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Med JAssoc 310 (2013), 2658–2667.
72. Merlini, G., Plante-Bordeneuve, V., Judge, D.P., Schmidt, H., Obici, L., Perlini, S., et al. Effects of tafamidis on transthyretin stabilization and clinical outcomes in patients with non-Val30Met transthyretin amyloidosis. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 6 (2013), 1011–1020.
73. Alhamadsheh, M.M., Connelly, S., Cho, A., Reixach, N., Powers, E.T., Pan, D.W., et al. Potent kinetic stabilizers that prevent transthyretin-mediated cardiomyocyte proteotoxicity. Sci Transl Med, 3, 2011, 97ra81.
74. Suhr, O.B., Coelho, T., Buades, J., Pouget, J., Conceicao, I., Berk, J., et al. Efficacy and safety of patisiran for familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy: a phase II multi-dose study. Orphanet J Rare Dis, 10, 2015, 109.
75. Hawkins, P.N., Ando, Y., Dispenzeri, A., Gonzalez-Duarte, A., Adams, D., Suhr, O.B., Evolving landscape in the management of transthyretin amyloidosis. Ann Med 47 (2015), 625–638.
76. Ackermann, E.J.G.S., Booten, S., Benson, M., Hughes, S., Monia, B.P., Clinical development of an antisense therapy for the treatment of hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. 2012, XIIIth International Symposium on Amyloidosis (ISA), Groningen, The Netherlands.
77. Cardoso, I., Saraiva, M.J., Doxycycline disrupts transthyretin amyloid: evidence from studies in a FAP transgenic mice model. FASEB J 20 (2006), 234–239.
78. Macedo, B., Batista, A.R., Ferreira, N., Almeida, M.R., Saraiva, M.J., Anti-apoptotic treatment reduces transthyretin deposition in a transgenic mouse model of familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy. Biochim Biophys Acta 1782 (2008), 517–522.
79. Cardoso, I., Martins, D., Ribeiro, T., Merlini, G., Saraiva, M.J., Synergy of combined doxycycline/TUDCA treatment in lowering transthyretin deposition and associated biomarkers: studies in FAP mouse models. J Transl Med, 8, 2010, 74.
80. Ferreira, N., Saraiva, M.J., Almeida, M.R., Natural polyphenols inhibit different steps of the process of transthyretin (TTR) amyloid fibril formation. FEBS Lett 585 (2011), 2424–2430.
81. Mikhael, J.R., Schuster, S.R., Jimenez-Zepeda, V.H., Bello, N., Spong, J., Reeder, C.B., et al. Cyclophosphamide-bortezomib-dexamethasone (CyBorD) produces rapid and complete hematologic response in patients with AL amyloidosis. Blood 119 (2012), 4391–4394.
82. Sperry, B.W., Ikram, A., Hachamovitch, R., Valent, J., Vranian, M.N., Phelan, D., et al. Efficacy of chemotherapy for light-chain amyloidosis in patients presenting with symptomatic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 67 (2016), 2941–2948.
83. D'Souza, A., Dispenzieri, A., Wirk, B., Zhang, M.J., Huang, J., Gertz, M.A., et al. Improved outcomes after autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation for light chain amyloidosis: a center for international blood and marrow transplant research study. J Clin Oncol 33 (2015), 3741–3749.
84. Jaccard, A., Moreau, P., Leblond, V., Leleu, X., Benboubker, L., Hermine, O., et al. High-dose melphalan versus melphalan plus dexamethasone for AL amyloidosis. N Engl J Med 357 (2007), 1083–1093.
85. Gertz, M.A., Landau, H., Comenzo, R.L., Seldin, D., Weiss, B., Zonder, J., et al. First-in-human phase I/II study of NEOD001 in patients with light chain amyloidosis and persistent organ dysfunction. J Clin Oncol 34 (2016), 1097–1103.
86. Edwards, C.V., Gould, J., Langer, A.L., Mapara, M., Radhakrishnan, J., Maurer, M.S., et al. Interim analysis of the phase 1a/b study of chimeric fibril-reactive monoclonal antibody 11-1F4 in patients with AL amyloidosis. Amyloid 24:Supp1. (2017), S58–S59.
87. Richards, D.B., Cookson, L.M., Berges, A.C., Barton, S.V., Lane, T., Ritter, J.M., et al. Therapeutic clearance of amyloid by antibodies to serum amyloid P component. N Engl J Med 373 (2015), 1106–1114.
88. Dubrey, S.W., Burke, M.M., Khaghani, A., Hawkins, P.N., Yacoub, M.H., Banner, N.R., Long term results of heart transplantation in patients with amyloid heart disease. Heart (Br Card Soc) 85 (2001), 202–207.
89. Dey, B.R., Chung, S.S., Spitzer, T.R., Zheng, H., Macgillivray, T.E., Seldin, D.C., et al. Cardiac transplantation followed by dose-intensive melphalan and autologous stem-cell transplantation for light chain amyloidosis and heart failure. Transplantation 90 (2010), 905–911.
90. Gray Gilstrap, L., Niehaus, E., Malhotra, R., Ton, V.K., Watts, J., Seldin, D.C., et al. Predictors of survival to orthotopic heart transplant in patients with light chain amyloidosis. J Heart Lung Transpl 33 (2014), 149–156.
91. Sattianayagam, P.T., Gibbs, S.D., Pinney, J.H., Wechalekar, A.D., Lachmann, H.J., Whelan, C.J., et al. Solid organ transplantation in AL amyloidosis. Am J Transpl 10 (2010), 2124–2131.
92. Mehra, M.R., Canter, C.E., Hannan, M.M., Semigran, M.J., Uber, P.A., Baran, D.A., et al. The 2016 International Society for Heart Lung Transplantation listing criteria for heart transplantation: a 10-year update. J Heart Lung Transpl 35 (2016), 1–23.