Psychotherapy is chaotic- (not only) in a computational world

Frontiers in Psychology

Volumn 8, Issue APR, 2017, Pages

  Schiepek, Günter K ^a,b   Viol, Kathrin ^a,b   Aichhorn, Wolfgang ^a   Hütt, Marc Thorsten ^c   Sungler, Katharina ^a,b   Pincus, David ^d   Schöller, Helmut J ^a,b  

^a PARACELSUS MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Austria)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

^c JACOBS UNIVERSITY BREMEN   (Germany)

^d CHAPMAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Common factors; Complexity science; Deterministic chaos; Mathematical modeling; Psychotherapy integration; Psychotherapy processes

Indexed keywords

EID: 85018273649     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16641078     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00379     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., and Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 87, 49-74. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49
2. Barkham, M., Stiles, W. B., and Shapiro, D. A. (1993). The shape of change in psychotherapy: longitudinal assessment of personal problems. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 61, 667-677. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.61.4.667
3. Barrow, J., and Tipler, F. (1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4. Bateman, A., and Fonagy, P. (2013). Mentalization-based treatment. Psychoanal. Inquiry 33, 595-613. doi: 10.1080/07351690.2013.835170
5. Bateman, A., and Fonagy, P. (2015). Borderline personality disorder and mood disorders: mentalizing as a framework for integrated treatment. J. Clin. Psychol. 71, 792-804. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22206
6. Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the Self. New York, NY: Basic Books.
7. Baumeister, R. F. (ed.) (1993). Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
8. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Beck, J. S., and Newman, C. F. (1993). Hopelessness, depression, suicidal ideation, and clinical diagnosis of depression. Suicide Life-Threat. Behav. 23, 139-145.
9. Bohart, A. C., and Tallman, K. (2010). "Clients: the neglected common factor in psychotherapy," in The Heart and Soul of Change, 2nd Edn., eds B. Duncan, S. Miller, B. Wampold, and M. Hubble (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 83-111.
10. Borsboom, D., and Cramer, A. O. (2013). Network analysis: an integrative approach to the structure of psychopathology. Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 9, 91-121. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185608
11. Brandman, O., Ferrell, J. E. Jr., Li, R., and Meyer, T. (2005). Interlinked fast and slow positive feedback loops drive reliable cell decisions. Science 310, 496-498. doi: 10.1126/science.1113834
12. Buchanan, M. (2012). It's a (stylized) fact! Nat. Phys. 8, 3. doi: 10.1038/nphys2191
13. Carey, T. A., Carey, M., Mullan, R. J., Murray, L. K., and Spratt, M. B. (2006). Psychological change: what changes and how does it occur? A critical review. Counsel. Psychol. Rev. 21, 28-38.
14. Caspar, F. (1996). Beziehungen und Probleme verstehen. Eine Einführung in die psychotherapeutische Plananalyse [Understanding Relationships and Problems. An Introduction to Psychotherapeutic Plan Analysis]. Bern: Huber.
15. Caviness, C. M., Hagerty, C. E., Anderson, B. J., de Dios, M. A., Hayaki, J., Herman, D., et al. (2013). Self-efficacy and motivation to quit Marijuana use among young women. Am. J. Addict. 22, 373-380. doi: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12030.x
16. Collet, P., and Eckmann, J. P. (2009). Iterated Maps on the Interval as Dynamical Systems. Berlin, New York, NY: Springer Science and Business Media.
17. Conner, M., and Norman, P. (1995). Predicting Health Behaviour: Research and Practice with Social Cognition Models. Buckingham: Open University Press.
18. Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., and Linehan, M. M. (2009). A biosocial developmental model of Borderline Personality: elaborating and extending Linehan's theory. Psychol. Bull. 135, 495-510. doi: 10.1037/a0015616
19. Deco, G., Jirsa, V. K., and McIntosh, A. R. (2013). Resting brains never rest: computational insights into potential cognitive architectures. Trends Neurosci. 36, 268-274. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2013.03.001
20. Demic, S., and Cheng, S. (2014). Modeling the dynamics of disease states in depression. PLoS ONE 9:e110358. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110358
21. Derryberry, D., and Reed, M. A. (1994). Temperament and attention: orienting toward and away from positive and negative signals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 66, 1128-1139. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.1128
22. Dimaggio, G., Nicolò, G., Semerari, A., and Carcione, A. (2013). Investigating the personality disorder psychotherapy process: the roles of symptoms, quality of affects, emotional dysregulation, interpersonal processes, and mentalizing. Psychother. Res. 23, 624-632. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2013.845921
23. Duncan, B., Miller, S., and Sparks, J. A. (eds.). (2004). The Heroic Client: A Revolutionary Way to Improve Effectiveness Through Client-directed, Outcome-informed Therapy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
24. Feigenbaum, M. J. (1983). Universal behavior in nonlinear systems. Physica D 7, 16-39. doi: 10.1016/0167-2789(83)90112-4
25. Fisher, A. J. (2015). Toward a dynamic model of psychological assessment: implications for personalized care. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 83, 825-836. doi: 10.1037/ccp0000026
26. Fisher, A. J., and Boswell, J. F. (2016). Enhancing the personalization of psychotherapy with dynamic assessment and modeling. Assessment 23, 496-506. doi: 10.1177/1073191116638735
27. Flückiger, C., Del Re, A. C., Wampold, B. E., Symonds, D., and Horvath, A. O. (2012). How central is the alliance in psychotherapy? A multilevel longitudinal meta-analysis. J. Counsel. Psychol. 59, 10-17. doi: 10.1037/a0025749
28. Gelo, O. C., and Salvatore, S. (2016). A dynamic systems approach to psychotherapy: a meta-theoretical framework for explaining psychotherapy change processes. J. Couns. Psychol. 63, 379-395. doi: 10.1037/cou0000150
29. Glass, L. (2001). Synchronization and rhythmic processes in physiology. Nature 410, 277-284. doi: 10.1038/35065745
30. Grawe, K. (2004). Psychological Therapy. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe.
31. Greenberg, L. S. (2002). Emotion-focused Therapy: Coaching Clients to Work Through Their Feelings. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
32. Greenberg, L. S., and Pascual-Leone, A. (2006). Emotion in psychotherapy: a practice-friendly research review. J. Clin. Psychol. 62, 611-630. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20252
33. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: current status and future prospects. Psychol. Inquiry 26, 1-26. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
34. Guastello, S., Koopmans, M., and Pincus, D. (eds.) (2009). Chaos and Complexity in Psychology. The Theory of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
35. Gumz, A., Bauer, K., and Brähler, E. (2012). Corresponding instability of patient and therapist process ratings in psychodynamic psychotherapies. Psychother. Res. 22, 26-39. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2011.622313
36. Haken, H. (2004). Synergetics. Introduction and Advanced Topics. Berlin: Springer.
37. Haken, H., and Schiepek, G. (2010). Synergetik in der Psychologie. Selbstorganisation verstehen und gestalten [Synergetics in Psychology. Understanding and Supporting Self-organization], 2nd Edn. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
38. Hayes, A. M., Laurenceau, J. P., Feldman, G. C., Strauss, J. L., and Cardaciotto, L. A. (2007). Change is not always linear: the study of nonlinear and discontinuous patterns of change in psychotherapy. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 27, 715-723. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.008
39. Heinzel, S., Tominschek, I., and Schiepek, G. (2014). Dynamic patterns in psychotherapy-discontinuous changes and critical instabilities during the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. Nonlinear Dyn. Psychol. Life Sci. 18, 155-176. doi: 10.339/fpsyg.2014.01089
40. Horowitz, M. J. (1987). States of Mind. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
41. Huber, M. T., Braun, H. A., and Krieg, J. C. (2004). Recurrent affective disorders: nonlinear and stochastic models of disease dynamics. Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos 14, 635. doi: 10.1142/s021812740400934x
42. Hütt, M. T. (2001). Datenanalyse in der Biologie [Data Analysis in Biology]. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer.
43. Hütt, M. T. (2007). Willkür, Takt und Chaos-Biologische Zeitmodelle und ihre Folgen [Arbitrariness, pulse, and chaos-biological models of time and their consequences]. Rechtsgeschichte 11, 26-45. doi: 10.12946/rg11/026-045
44. Hütt, M. T., Rascher, U., Beck, F., and Lüttge, U. (2002). Period-2 cycles and 2:1 phase locking in a biological clock driven by temperature pulses. J. Theoret. Biol. 217, 383-390. doi: 10.1006/jtbi.2002.3031
45. Kaplan, D. T., and Glass, L. (1992). Direct test for determinism in a time series. Phys. Rev. Lett. 68:427. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.68.427
46. Kashdan, T. B., and Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 30, 865-878. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001
47. Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Treatment outcomes, common factors, and continued neglect of mechanisms of change. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 12, 184-188. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.bpi023
48. Kazdin, A. E. (2009). Understanding how and why psychotherapy leads to change. Psychother. Res. 19, 418-428. doi: 10.1080/10503300802448899
49. Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Cogn. Emot. 23, 4-41. doi: 10.1080/02699930802619031
50. Kowalik, Z. J., and Elbert, T. (1994). Changes of chaoticness in spontaneous EEG/MEG. Int. Physiol. Behav. Sci. 29, 270-282. doi: 10.1007/BF02691331
51. Kowalik, Z. J., Schiepek, G., Kumpf, K., Roberts, L. E., and Elbert, T. (1997). Psychotherapy as a chaotic process II. The application of nonlinear analysis methods on quasi time series of the client-therapist interaction: a nonstationary approach. Psychother. Res. 7, 197-218. doi: 10.1080/10503309712331331973
52. Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., van Geert, P., Bosma, H., and Kunnen, S. (2008). Time and identity: a framework for research and theory formation. Dev. Rev. 28, 370-400. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2008.04.001
53. Lieb, K., Zanarini, M. C., Schmahl, C., Linehan, M. M., and Bohus, M. (2004). Borderline personality disorder. Lancet 364, 453-461. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6
54. Liebovitch, L. S., Peluso, P. R., Norman, M. D., Su, J., and Gottman, J. M. (2011). Mathematical model of the dynamics of psychotherapy. Cogn. Neurodyn. 5, 265-275. doi: 10.1007/s11571-011-9157-x
55. Lutz, W., Ehrlich, T., Rubel, J., Hallwachs, N., Röttger, M. A., Jorasz, C., et al. (2013). The ups and downs of psychotherapy: sudden gains and sudden losses identified with session reports. Psychother. Res. 23, 14-24. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2012.693837
56. Mainzer, K. (2007). Thinking in Complexity. The Complex Dynamics of Matter, Mind, and Mankind, 5th Edn. Berlin; Heidelberg, New York, NY: Springer.
57. May, R. M. (1976). Simple mathematical models with very complicated dynamics. Nature 261, 459-467. doi: 10.1038/261459a0
58. Mergentaler, E. (1996). Emotion-abstraction patterns in verbatim protocols: a new way of describing psychotherapeutic processes. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 64, 1306-1315. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.64.6.1306
59. Molenaar, P. C. M. (2004). A manifesto on psychology as idiographic science: bringing the person back into scientific psychology, this time forever. Measurement: Interdisc. Res. Perspect. 2, 201-218. doi: 10.1207/s15366359mea0204_1
60. Muran, J. C., Gorman, B. S., Safran, J. D., Twining, L., Samstag, L. W., and Winston, A. (1995). Linking in-session change to overall outcome in short-term cognitive therapy. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63, 651-657. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.63.4.651
61. Nijenhuis, E. R. S., and van der Hart, O. (2011). Dissociation in trauma: a new definition and comparison with previous formulations. J. Trauma Dissoc. 12, 416-445. doi: 10.1080/15299732.2011.570592
62. Orlinsky, D. E. (2009). The "Generic Model of Psychotherapy" after 25 years: evolution and of a research-based metatheory. J. Psychother. Integr. 19, 319-339. doi: 10.1037/a0017973
63. Orlinsky, D. E., Ronnestad, M. H., and Willutzki, U. (2004). "Fifty years of psychotherapy process-outcome research: continuity and change," in Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change, ed M. J. Lambert (New York, NY: Wiley), 307-390.
64. Orsucci, F. (2006). The paradigm of complexity in clinical neuro-cognitive science. Neuroscientist 12, 390-397. doi: 10.1177/1073858406290266
65. Orsucci, F. (2015). Towards a meta-model of human change, from singularity to event horizon. Chaos Complex. Lett. 9, 24-38.
66. Ott, E. (1993). Chaos in Dynamical Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
67. Peluso, P. R., Liebovitch, L. S., Gottman, J. M., Norman, M. D., and Su, J. (2012). A mathematical model of psychotherapy: an investigation using dynamic nonlinear equations to model the therapeutic relationship. Psychother. Res. 22, 40-55. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2011.622314
68. Pincus, D. (2009). "Coherence, complexity, and information flow: a self-organizing processes in psychotherapy," in Chaos and Complexity in Psychology. The Theory of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems, eds S. Guastello, M. Koopmans, and D. Pincus (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press), 335-369.
69. Pincus, D. (2015). Experiential balancing therapy: an integrative psychotherapy theory and approach grounded in complex adaptive systems theory. Part I: theoretical overview and key concepts. Chaos Complex. Lett. 8, 179-201.
70. Pincus, D. (2016). Experiential balancing therapy: an integrative psychotherapy theory and approach grounded in complex adaptive systems theory. Part II: assessment, treatment planning, and intervention. Chaos Complex. Lett. 9, 139-166.
71. Ramirez-Mahaluf, J. P., Roxin, A., Mayberg, H. S., and Compte, A. (2017). A computational model of Major Depression: the role of glutamate dysfunction on cingulo-frontal network dynamics. Cereb. Cortex 27, 660-679. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhv249
72. Ramseyer, F., and Tschacher, W. (2008). "Synchronisation in dyadic psychotherapy sessions," in Simulataneity: Temporal Structures and Observer Perspectives, eds S. Vrobel, O.E. Rössler, and T. Marks-Tarlow (Singapore: World Scientific), 329-347.
73. Rapp, P. E., Albano, M. E., Zimmerman, I. D., and Jimenez-Montano, M. (1994). Phase-randomized surrogates can produce spurious identifications of non-random structure. Phys. Lett. A 192, 27-33. doi: 10.1016/0375-9601(94)91010-3
74. Rapp, R. C., Li, L., Siegal, H. A., and DeLiberty, R. N. (2003). Demographic and clinical correlates of client motivation among substance abusers. Health Soc. Work 28, 107-115. doi: 10.1093/hsw/28.2.107
75. Rockstroh, B., Watzl, H., Kowalik, Z. J., Cohen, R., Sterr, A., Müller, M., et al. (1997). Dynamical aspects of the EEG in different psychopathological states in an interview situation. A pilot study. Schizophrenia Res. 28, 77-85. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(97)00094-7
76. Rosenstein, M. T., Collins, J. J., and de Luca, C. J. (1993). A practical method for calculating Largest Lyapunov Exponents from small data sets. Physica D 65, 117-134. doi: 10.1016/0167-2789(93)90009-P
77. Ryan, R. M., Plant, R. W., and O'Malley, S. (1995). Initial motivations for alcohol treatment: relations with patient characteristics, treatment involvement, and dropout. Addict. Behav. 20, 279-297.
78. Salvatore, S., and Tschacher, W. (2012). Time dependency of psychotherapeutic exchanges: the contribution of the theory of dynamic systems in analyzing processes. Front. Psychol. 3:253. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00253
79. Santangelo, P. S., Limberger, M. F., Stiglmayr, C., Houben, M., Coosemans, J., Verleysen, G., et al. (2016). Analyzing subcomponents of affective dysregulation in borderline personality disorder in comparison to other clinical groups using multiple e-diary datasets. Borderline Pers. Disorder Emot. Dysreg. 3:5 doi: 10.1186/s40479-016-0039-z
80. Schiepek, G., Aas, B., and Viol, K. (2016b). The mathematics of psychotherapy-a nonlinear model of change dynamics. Nonlinear Dyn. Psychol. Life Sci. 20, 369-399.
81. Schiepek, G., Aichhorn, W., Gruber, M., Strunk, G., Bachler, E., and Aas, B. (2016a). Real-time monitoring of psychotherapeutic processes: concept and compliance. Front. Psychol. 7:604. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00604
82. Schiepek, G., Aichhorn, W., and Strunk, G. (2012). Der Therapie-Prozessbogen (TPB). Faktorenstruktur und psychometrische Daten [The Therapy Process Questionnaire [TPQ]. Factor structure and psychometric data]. Z. Psychosom. Med. Psychother. [J. Psychosom. Med. Psychother.] 58, 257-266. doi: 10.13109/zptm.2012.58.3.257
83. Schiepek, G., Eckert, H., Aas, B., Wallot, S., and Wallot, A. (2015). Integrative Psychotherapy. A Feedback-Driven Dynamic Systems Approach. Boston, MA: Hogrefe International Publishing.
84. Schiepek, G., Fricke, B., and Kaimer, P. (1992a). "Synergetics of psychotherapy," in Self-organization and Clinical Psychology, eds W. Tschacher, G. Schiepek, and E. J. Brunner (Heidelberg; Berlin: Springer), 239-267.
85. Schiepek, G., Heinzel, S., Karch, S., Aas, B., and Strunk, G. (2014a). Chaos and self-organization in psychotherapy. Chaos Complexity Lett 8, 231-256.
86. Schiepek, G., Kowalik, Z. J., Schütz, A., Köhler, M., Richter, K., Strunk, G., et al. (1997). Psychotherapy as a chaotic process I. Coding the client-therapist interaction by means of Sequential Plan Analysis and the search for chaos: a stationary approach. Psychother. Res. 7, 173-194. doi: 10.1080/10503309712331331953
87. Schiepek, G., Schoppek, W., and Tretter, F. (1992b). "Synergetics in psychiatry: simulation of evolutionary patterns of schizophrenia on the basis of nonlinear difference equations," in Self-organization and Clinical Psychology, eds W. Tschacher, G. Schiepek, and E. J. Brunner (Heidelberg; Berlin: Springer), 163-194.
88. Schiepek, G., Stöger-Schmidinger, B., Aichhorn, W., Schöller, H., and Aas, B. (2016c). Systemic case formulation, individualized process monitoring, and state dynamics in a case of dissociative identity disorder. Front. Psychol. 7:1545. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01545
89. Schiepek, G., Tominschek, I., and Heinzel, S. (2014b). Self-organization in psychotherapy-testing the synergetic model of change processes. Front. Psychol. 5:1089. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01089
90. Schiepek, G., Tominschek, I., Heinzel, S., Aigner, M., Dold, M., Unger, A., et al. (2013). Discontinuous patterns of brain activation in the psychotherapy process of obsessive compulsive disorder: converging results from repeated fMRI and daily self-reports. PLoS ONE 8:e71863. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071863
91. Schmahl, C., Herpertz, S. C., Bertsch, K., Ende, G., Flor, H., Kirsch, P., et al. (2014). Mechanisms of disturbed emotion processing and social interaction in borderline personality disorder: state of knowledge and research agenda of the German Clinical Research Unit. Borderline Pers. Disorder Emot. Dysreg. 1:12. doi: 10.1186/2051-6673-1-12
92. Schmidt, C., Bischof, G., Harting, M., and Rumpf, H. (2009). Motivation to change and readiness for counseling in prescription-drug-dependent patients in a general hospital population. Addict. Res. Theory 17, 186-190. doi: 10.1080/16066350802447082
93. Schuster, H. G. (1989). Deterministic Chaos. An Introduction. Weinheim: VCH.
94. Silberschatz, G. (2009). What have we learned about how the alliance develops over the course of therapy? Psychotherapy 46, 295-297. doi: 10.1037/a0016915
95. Sirois, F. M. (2004). Procrastination and intentions to perform health behaviors: the role of self-efficacy and the consideration of future consequences. Pers. Individ. Diff. 37, 115-128. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2003.08.005
96. Skinner, J. E. (1992). The Point-D2 Algorithm. Houston, TX: Baylor College of Medicine.
97. Skinner, J. E., Molnar, M., and Tomberg, C. (1994). The point correlation dimension: performance with nonstationary surrogate data and noise. Int. Physiol. Behav. Sci. 29, 217-234. doi: 10.1007/BF02691327
98. Sparks, J. A., and Duncan, B. L. (2010). "Common factors in couple and family therapy: must all have prices?" in The Heart and Soul of Change, 2nd Edn., eds B. Duncan, S. Miller, B. Wampold, and M. Hubble (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 357-391.
99. Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychol. Bull. 133, 65-94. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
100. Stiles, W. B., Glick, M. J., Osatuke, K., Hardy, G. E., Shapiro, D. A., Agnew-Davies, R., et al. (2014). Patterns of alliance development and the rupture-repair hypothesis: are productive relationships U-shaped or V-shaped? J. Counsel. Psychol. 51, 81-92. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.81
101. Stiles, W., Leach, C., Barkham, M., Lucock, M., Iveson, S., Shapiro, D., et al. (2003). Early sudden gains in psychotherapy under routine clinic conditions: practice-based evidence. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 71, 14-21. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.71.1.14
102. Strogatz, S. H. (2014). Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
103. Strunk, G., Aichhorn, W., and Schiepek, G. (2015). "Therapeutisches Chaos. Empirische Einblicke in die Komplexität menschlichen Verhaltens anhand des "Schmetterlingseffekts" psychotherapeutischer Prozesse [Therapeutic Chaos. Empirical results on the complexity of human behavior referring to the "butterfly effect" in psychotherapeutic processes]," in Der psychotherapeutische Prozess [The Psychotherapeutic Process], eds I. Sammet, G. Dammann, and G. Schiepek (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer), 31-40.
104. Strunk, G., and Schiepek, G. (2006). Systemische Psychologie. Einführung in die komplexen Grundlagen menschlichen Verhaltens [Systemic Psychology. An Introduction to Complexity in Human Behavior and Cognition]. München: Elsevier.
105. Sugiura, Y., and Sugiura, T. (2015). Emotional intensity reduces later generalized anxiety disorder symptoms when fear of anxiety and negative problem-solving appraisal are low. Behav. Res. Ther. 71, 27-33. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2015.05.015
106. Sungler, K. (2017). Justification and Underpinnings of a Mathematical Psychotherapy Model from Psychotherapy and Psychological Research. Salzburg: Institute of Synergetics and Psychotherapy Reserach, Paracelsus Medical University.
107. Tschacher, W., Baur, N., and Grawe, K. (2000). Temporal interaction of process variables in psychotherapy. Psychother. Res. 10, 296-309. doi: 10.1093/ptr/10.3.296
108. van Beek, N., and Verheul, R. (2008). Motivation for treatment in patients with personality disorders. J. Pers. Disorders 22, 89-100. doi: 10.1521/pedi.2008.22.1.89
109. Vandenhouten, R. (1998). Analyse instationärer Zeitreihen komplexer Systeme und Anwendungen in der Physiologie [Analysis of Nonstationary Time Series in Complex Systems and Applications to Physiology]. Aachen: Shaker Verlag.
110. Walter, S., Schiepek, G., Schneider, S., Strunk, G., Kaimer, P., and Mergentaler, E. (2010). The synchronization of plan activations and emotion-abstraction-patterns in the psychotherapeutic process-a single case study. Psychother. Res. 20, 214-223. doi: 10.1080/10503300903277437
111. Wampold, B. E. (2015). How important are the common factors in psychotherapy? Un update. World Psychiatry 14, 270-277. doi: 10.1002/wps.20238
112. Webb, C. A., DeRubeis, R. J., and Barber, J. P. (2010). Therapist adherence/competence and treatment outcome: a meta-analytic review. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 78, 200-211. doi: 10.1037/a0018912
113. Weiss, J. (1993). How Psychotherapy Works: Process and Technique. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
114. Wichers, M., Wigman, J. T. W., and Myin-Germeys, I. (2015). Micro-level affect dynamics in psychopathology viewed from complex dynamical system theory. Emot. Rev. 7, 362-367. doi: 10.1177/1754073915590623
115. Wirtz, C. M., Hofmann, S. G., Riper, H., and Berking, M. (2014). Emotion regulation predicts anxiety over a five-year interval: a cross-lagged panel analysis. Depr. Anxiety 31, 87-95. doi: 10.1002/da.22198
116. Wolf, A., Swift, J. B., Swinney, H. L., and Vastano, J. A. (1985). Determining Lyapunov exponents from a time series. Physica D 16, 285-317. doi: 10.1016/0167-2789(85)90011-9
117. Yordanov, P., Tyanova, S., Hütt, M. T., and Lesne, A. (2011). Asymmetric transition and timescale separation in interlinked positive feedback loops. Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos 21, 1895-1905. doi: 10.1142/S0218127411029483