Academic Research in the 21st Century: Maintaining Scientific Integrity in a Climate of Perverse Incentives and Hypercompetition

Environmental Engineering Science

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 51-61

  Edwards, Marc A ^a   Roy, Siddhartha ^a  

^a State University   (United States)

Author keywords

academic research; Funding; misconduct; Perverse incentives; Scientific integrity

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE; COMPETITION; EDUCATION; FUNDING; GOVERNMENT; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MISCONDUCT; MODEL; QUANTITATIVE STUDY; SCIENTIST; TRUST;

EID: 85018260001     PISSN: 10928758     EISSN: 15579018     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/ees.2016.0223     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Abbott, A., Cyranoski, D., Jones, N., Maher, B., Schiermeier, Q., and Van Noorden, R. (2010). Metrics: Do metrics matter? Nature. 465, 860
2. Aitkenhead, D. (2013, Dec. 6). Peter Higgs: I wouldnt be productive enough for todays academic system. The Guardian Available at: www.theguardian.com/science/2013/dec/06/peterhiggs-boson-Academic-system (accessed September 16, 2016)
3. Allison, S.T., Messick, D.M., and Goethals, G.R. (1989). On being better but not smarter than others: The Muhammad Ali effect. Soc. Cogn. 7, 275
4. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. (2016). Public Research Universities: Serving the Public Good. Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences
5. American Society of Cell Biology (ACSB). (2012). San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment. Available at: www.ascb.org/dora (accessed September 16, 2016)
6. Anderson, N. (2013, Feb. 6). Five colleges misreported data to U.S. News, raising concerns about rankings, reputation. The Washington Post. Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/five-colleges-misreported-data-To-us-newsraising-concerns-About-rankings-reputation/2013/02/06/cb437 876-6b17-11e2-Af53-7b2b2a7510a8-story.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
7. Aschwanden, C. (2015, Aug. 19). Science isnt broken. FiveThirty Eight. Available at: http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/scienceisnt-broken (accessed September 16, 2016)
8. Ashforth, B.E., and Anand, V. (2003). The normalization of corruption in organizations. Res. Organ. Behav. 25, 1
9. Atlanta Public Schools (APS). (2016). About APS j Mission and Vision. Available at: www.atlanta.k12.ga.us/Domain/35 (accessed September 16, 2016)
10. Barry, F. (2015, Apr. 1). Peer-review cheating ring discredits another 43 papers. In-Pharma Technologist. Available at: www .in-pharmatechnologist.com/Regulatory-Safety/Peer-reviewcheating-ring-discredits-Another-43-papers (accessed September 16, 2016)
11. Bartneck, C., and Kokkelmans, S. (2011). Detecting h-index manipulation through self-citation analysis. Scientometrics. 87, 85
12. Bedeian, A.G., Taylor, S.G., and Miller, A.N. (2010). Management science on the credibility bubble: Cardinal sins and various misdemeanors. Acad. Manage. Learn. Educ. 9, 715
13. Belluz, J., and Hoffman, S. (2015, May 13). Science is often flawed. Its time we embraced that. Vox. Available at: www .vox.com/2015/5/13/8591837/how-science-is-broken (accessed September 16, 2016)
14. Belluz, J., Plumer, B., and Resnick, B. (2016, Jul. 14). The 7 biggest problems facing science, according to 270 scientists Vox. Available at: www.vox.com/2016/7/14/12016710/sciencechalleges-research-funding-peer-review-process (accessed September 16, 2016)
15. Borman, S. (2016). Nanoparticle synthesis paper retracted after 12 years. Chemical and Engineering News. Available at: http://cen.acs.org/articles/94/i8/Nanoparticle-Synthesis-Paper-Retracted-After-12-Years.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
16. Bornmann, L., and Mutz, R. (2015). Growth rates of modern science: Abibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited references. J. Assoc. Inform. Sci. Technol. 66, 2215
17. Boyd, G.R., Reiber, S.H., McFadden, M., and Korshin, G (2012). Effect of changing water quality on galvanic coupling J. AWWA. 104, E136
18. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). (2016). Saving science from the scientists: Episode 2. BBC. Available at: www.bbc.co .uk/programmes/b07378cr (accessed September 16, 2016)
19. Brownlee, J.K. (2014). Irreconcilable Differences: The Corporatization of Canadian Universities (Doctoral dissertation)
20. Carleton University. Available at: https://curve.carleton.ca/b945d1f1-64d4-40eb-92d2-1a29effe0f76 (accessed September 16, 2016)
21. Buela-Casal, G. (2014). Pathological publishing: A new psychological disorder with legal consequences? Eur. J. Psychol Appl. Legal Context. 6, 91
22. Callaway, E. (2016). Beat it, impact factor! Publishing elite turns against controversial metric. Nature. Available at: www.nature.com/news/beat-it-impact-factor-publishing-eliteturns-Against-controversial-metric-1.20224 (accessed September 16, 2016)
23. Campbell, A.G., Skvirsky, R., Wortis, H., Thomas, S., Kawachi, I., and Hohmann, C. (2014). Nest 2014: Views from the traineestalking about what matters in efforts to diversify the stem workforce. CBE Life Sci. Educ. 13, 587
24. Carpenter, C.R., Cone, D.C., and Sarli, C.C. (2014). Using publication metrics to highlight academic productivity and research impact. Acad. Emerg. Med. 21, 1160
25. Casassus, B. (2014). China predicted to outspend the US on science by 2020. Nature. Available at: www.nature.com/news/china-predicted-To-outspend-The-us-on-science-by-2020-1.16329 (accessed September 16, 2016)
26. Casper, G. (1996). Criticism of College Rankings. Letter from Stanford President Gerhard Casper to James Fallows, Editor of U.S. News & World Report. Available at: http://web.stanford .edu/dept/pres-provost/president/speeches/961206gcfallow.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
27. Chronicle of Higher Education (CHE) (accessed September 16, 2016) 2013, What we talk about when we talk about quitting, Chronicle of Higher Educationm , https://chroniclevitae.com/news/215-what-we-Talk-About-when-we-Talk-About-quitting?cid = vem (accessed September 16, 2016)
28. Chronicle Vitae (2013-2014). Quit lit. Chronicle Vitae. Available at: https://chroniclevitae.com/news/tags/Quit%20Lit (accessed September 16, 2016)
29. Coleman-Adebayo, M. (2011). No Fear: A Whistleblowers Triumph Over Corruption and Retaliation at the EPA Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press
30. Curtis, J.W., and Thornton, S. (2013). Heres the news: The annual report on the economic status of the profession 2012-13 Academe. 99, 4
31. Cushman, P., Hoeksema, J.T., Kouveliotou, C., Lowenthal, J., Peterson, B., Stassun, K.G., and vonHippel, T. (2015). Impact of declining proposal success rates on scientific productivity AAAC Proposal Pressures Study Group Discussion Draft Available at: www.nsf.gov/attachments/134636/public/proposal-success-rates-Aaac-final.pdf
32. Cycling Independent Reform Commission (CIRC). (2015) Report to the President of the Union Cyclist Internationale Available at: www.uci.ch/mm/Document/News/CleanSport/16/87/99/CIRCReport2015-Neutral.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
33. Cyranoski, D., Gilbert, N., Ledford, H., Nayar, A., and Yahia, M. (2011). Education: The PhD factory. Nature. 472, 276
34. Delgado López-Cózar, N., Robinson-García, N., and Torres-Salinas, D. (2012). Manipulating Google scholar citations and Google scholar metrics: Simple, easy and tempting. EC3 Working Papers. 6: 29 May, 2012
35. Dem, G. (2011).Howto Increase Your Papers Citation andHIndex Available at: www.academia.edu/934257/How-To-increase-your-papers-citations-And-h-index-in-5-simple-steps (accessed September 16, 2016)
36. Denworth, L. (2008). Toxic Truth: A Scientist, a Doctor, and the Battle Over Lead. Boston, MA: Beacon Press
37. Diekman, A.B., Brown, E.R., Johnston, A.M., and Clark, E.K (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt out of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. Psychol. Sci. 21, 1051
38. Dimeo, P. (2015, Jul. 10). How cyclings dark history continues to haunt the Tour de France. The Conversation. Available at: http://theconversation.com/how-cyclings-dark-history-continuesto-haunt-The-Tour-de-france-44312 (accessed September 16, 2016)
39. Dunn, S. (2013, Dec. 12). Why so many academics quit and tell Chronicle of Higher Education. Available at: https://chronicle vitae.com/news/216-why-so-many-Academics-quit-And-Tell (accessed September 16, 2016)
40. Dzeng, E. (2014). How academia and publishing are destroying scientific innovation: A conversation with Sydney Brenner
41. Elizabeth Dzengs Blog. Available at: https://elizabethdzeng .com/2014/02/26/how-Academia-And-publishing-Are-destroyingscientific-innovation-A-conversation-with-sydney-brenner/(accessed September 16, 2016)
42. Edwards, M.A. (2012).Discussion: Effect of changing water quality on galvanic coupling. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 104, 65
43. Edwards, M.A. (2014). Foreword. In D.L. Lewis, Ed., Science for Sale. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, pp. ix-xiii
44. Edwards, M.A. (2016). Institutional Scientific Misconduct at U.S
45. Public Health Agencies: How Malevolent Government Betrayed Flint, MI. Testimony to the U.S. Cong. Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on Examining Federal Administration of the Safe Drinking Water Act in Flint, Michigan Hearing, February 3, 2016. 112th Congress. 2nd session. Available at: https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Edwards-VA-Tech-Statement-2-3-Flint-Water.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
46. Eisen, J.A. (2010-2015). Microbiomania. Personal Blog Available at: http://phylogenomics.blogspot.com/p/blog-page .html (accessed September 16, 2016)
47. Elton, L. (2004). Goodharts law and performance indicators in higher education. Eval. Res. Educ. 18, 120
48. Falagas, M.E., and Alexiou, V.G. (2008). The top-Ten in journal impact factor manipulation. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 56, 223
49. Fanelli, D. (2009). How many scientists fabricate and falsify research? A systematic review and meta-Analysis of survey data. PLoS One. 4, e5738
50. Fanelli, D., Costas, R., and Larivière, V. (2015). Misconduct policies, academic culture and career stage, not gender or pressures to publish, affect scientific integrity. PLoS One. 10, e0127556
51. Fang, F.C., and Casadevall, A. (2016). Research funding: The case for a modified lottery. mBio. 7, e00422
52. Fang, F.C., Grant Steen, R., and Casadevall, A. (2012). Misconduct accounts for the majority of retracted scientific publications. Proc. Natl. Aacd. Sci. U. S. A. 109, 17028
53. Faust, D.G. (2009, Sep. 1). The Universitys Crisis of Purpose The New York Times. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/books/review/Faust-T.html?-r=0 (accessed September 16, 2016)
54. Feynman, R.P. (1974). Cargo Cult Science: Caltechs 1974 Commencement Address. Available at: http://calteches.library .caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.htm (accessed September 16, 2016)
55. Fischer, P. (2011). New Research Misconduct Policies. National Science Foundation. Available at: www.nsf.gov/oig/-pdf/presentations/session.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
56. Fischer, J., Ritchie, E.G., and Hanspach, J. (2012). An academia beyond quantity: A reply to Loyola et al. and Halme et al Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 587
57. Frodeman, R. (2011). Interdisciplinary research and academic sustainability: Managing knowledge in an age of accountability Environ. Conserv. 38, 105
58. Gibbs, K.D., and Griffin, K.A. (2013). What do I want to be with my PhD? The roles of personal values and structural dynamics in shaping the career interests of recent biomedical science phd graduates. CBE Life Sci. Educ. 12, 711
59. Gladwell, M. (2011, Feb. 24). The order of things. The New Yorker. Available at: www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/02/14/the-order-of-Things (accessed September 16, 2016)
60. Gobry, P.-E. (2016, Apr. 18). Big science is broken. The Week Available at: http://theweek.com/articles/618141/big-sciencebroken (accessed September 16, 2016)
61. Harding, T.S., Carpenter, D.D., and Finelli, C.J. (2012). An exploratory investigation of the ethical behavior of engineering undergraduates. J. Eng. Educ. 101, 346
62. Harris, R., and Benincasa, R. (2014, Sep. 9). U.S. science suffering from booms and busts in funding. National Public Radio. Available at: www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2014/09/09/340716091/u-s-science-suffering-from-booms-And-bustsin-funding (accessed September 16, 2016)
63. Hinkes-Jones, L. (2014). Bad science. Jacobin. Available at:www jacobinmag.com/2014/06/bad-science (accessed September 16, 2016)
64. Hourihan, M. (2015). Federal R&D Budget Trends: A Short Summary. Available at: www.aaas.org/program/rd-budget-Andpolicy-program (accessed September 16, 2016)
65. Huber, B.R. (2014, Sep. 22). Scientists seen as competent but not trusted by Americans. Woodrow Wilson Research Briefs Available at: wws.princeton.edu/news-And-events/news/item/scientists-seen-competent-not-Trusted-Americans (accessed September 16, 2016)
66. Jaschik, S. (2013, Sep. 18). Feeling the Heat: The 2013 Survey of College and University Admissions Directors. Inside Higher Ed, www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/feelingheat-2013-survey-college-And-university-Admissions-directors (accessed September 16, 2016)
67. Kamenetz, A. (2015, Apr. 1). The Atlanta cheating verdict: Some context. National Public Radio. Available at: www.npr.org/blogs/ed/2015/04/01/396869874/the-Atlanta-cheatingverdict-some-context (accessed September 16, 2016)
68. Kasperkevic, J. (2014, Oct. 7). The harsh truth: US colleges are businesses, and student loans pay the bills. The Guardian Available at: www.theguardian.com/money/us-money-blog/2014/oct/07/colleges-ceos-cooper-union-ivory-Tower-Tuitionstudent-loan-debt (accessed September 16, 2016)
69. Kevles, D.J. (2000). The Baltimore Case: A Trial of Politics, Science, and Character. New York:W. W. Norton&Company
70. Kolata, G. (2016, Jul. 14). So many research scientists, so few openings as professors. The New York Times. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/upshot/so-many-research-scientists-sofew-openings-As-professors.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
71. Kutner, M. (2014, Sep.). How Northeastern university gamed the college rankings. Boston Magazine. Available at: www.bostonmagazine.com/news/article/2014/08/26/how-northeasterngamed-The-college-rankings (accessed September 16, 2016)
72. Labbé, C. (2010). Ike Antkare One of the Great Stars in the Scientific Firmament. Laboratoire dInformatique de Grenoble Research Report No. RR-LIG-008. Available at: http://rr.liglabfr/research-report/RR-LIG-008.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
73. Ladner, D.A., Bolyard, S.C., Apul, D., and Whelton, A.J (2013). Navigating the academic job search for environmental engineers: Guidance for job seekers and mentors. J Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract. 139, 211
74. Laduke, R.D. (2013). Academic dishonesty today, unethical practices tomorrow? J. Prof. Nurs. 29, 402
75. Langmuir, I. (1953). Colloquium on Pathological Science. Knolls Research Laboratory, December 18, 1953. Available at: www.cs.princeton.edu/ken/Langmuir/langmuir.htm (accessed September 16, 2016)
76. Lawrence, P.A. (2009). Real lives and white lies in the funding of scientific research. PLoS Biol. 7, e1000197
77. Lee, C. (2007, May 28). Slump in NIH funding is taking toll on research. The Washington Post. Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052700794.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
78. Leiserowitz, A.A., Maibach, E.W., Roser-Renouf, C., Smith, N., and Dawson, E. (2012). Climategate, public opinion and the loss of trust. Am. Behav. Scientist. 57, 818
79. Lewis, D.L. (2014). Science for Sale.NewYork: Skyhorse Publishing
80. Macilwain, C. (1997). Whistleblowers face blast of hostility Nature. 385, 669
81. Macilwain, C. (2013). Halt the avalanche of performance metrics. Nature. 500, 255
82. Marcus, A., and Oransky, I. (2015, May 22). Whats behind big science frauds? The New York Times. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2015/05/23/opinion/whats-behind-big-science-frauds.html(accessed September 16, 2016)
83. Martinson, B.C., Crain, A.L., Anderson, M.S., and De Vries, R (2009). Institutions expectations for researchers self-funding, federal grant holding, and private industry involvement: Manifold drivers of self-interest and researcher behavior. Acad.Med 84, 1491
84. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 2015, The Future Postponed. A Report by the MIT Committee to evaluate the innovation deficit, https://dc.mit.edu/sites/default/files/Future%20Postponed.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
85. McDermott, J. (2013, Mar. 7). Gaming the system: How to get an astronomical h-index with little scientific impact. Personal Blog. Available at: http://jasonya.com/wp/gaming-The-systemhow-To-get-An-Astronomical-h-index-with-little-scientific-impact (accessed September 16, 2016)
86. Michalek, A.M., Hutson, A.D., Wicher, C.P., and Trump, D.L (2010). The costs and underappreciated consequences of research misconduct: A case study. PLoS Med. 7, e1000318
87. Mirowski, P. (2011). Science-Mart. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press
88. Morse, R. (2015, Mar. 27). Debunking myths about The U.S news best colleges rankings. U.S. News & World Report Available at: www.usnews.com/education/blogs/collegerankings-blog/2015/03/27/debunking-myths-About-The-us-newsbest-colleges-rankings (accessed September 16, 2016)
89. Mulvey, S. (2012, Oct. 12). Lance Armstrong: Tyler Hamilton on how US Postal cheated. BBC News. Available at: www .bbc.com/news/magazine-19912623 (accessed September 16, 2016)
90. National Academy of Engineering (NAE). (2004). The Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering in the New Century Washington, DC: The National Academies Press
91. National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2008). Average Age of Principal Investigators. Available at: https://report.nih.gov/NIH-Investment/PDF-sectionwise/NIH-Extramural-DataBook-PDF/NEDB-SPECIAL-TOPIC-AVERAGE-AGE.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
92. National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2015). NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools-Research Project Success Rates of NIH Institute. Available at: https://report.nih.gov/success-rates/Success-ByIC.cfm (accessed September 16, 2016)
93. National Science Board (NSB). (2014). Reducing Investigators Administrative Workload for Federally Funded Research. Report NSB-14-18. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation
94. National Science Foundation (NSF). (2016). Budget Internet Information System: Providing Statistical and Funding Information Available at: http://dellweb.bfa.nsf.gov/awdfr3/default.asp (accessed September 16, 2016)
95. Nature. (2015, May 19). Editorial: Publish or perish. Nature 521, 159
96. New Scientist. (2016, May 17). Microbiomania: The Truth Behind the Hype About Our Bodily Bugs. Available at: www .newscientist.com/article/2088613-microbiomania-The-Truthbehind-The-hype-About-our-bodily-bugs (accessed September 16, 2016)
97. Nuzzo, R. (2015, Oct. 7). How scientists fool themselves-And how they can stop. Nature. 526, 182
98. OECD, 2014 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2014. Paris: OECD Publishing
99. Oreskes, N., and Conway, E.M. (2010). Merchants of Doubt New York: Bloomsbury Press
100. Plerou, V., Nunes Amaral, L.A., Gopikrishnan, P., Meyer, M., and Stanley, H.G. (1999). Similarities between the growth dynamics of university research and of competitive economic activities. Nature. 400, 433
101. Porter, E. (2015, May 19). American Innovation Lies on Weak Foundation. The New York Times. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2015/05/20/business/economy/american-innovationrests-on-weak-foundation.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
102. Price, D.J.D.-S. (1963). Little Science, Big Science. and Beyond New York: Columbia University Press
103. Quake, S. (2009). Letting scientists off the leash. The New York Times Blog, February 10
104. Reiber, S., and Dufresne, L. (2006). Effects of External Currents and Dissimilar Metal Contact on Corrosion of Lead from Lead Service Lines. Philadelphia: Final Report to USEPA region III
105. Retraction Watch. (2015a, Nov. 5). Got the Blues? You Can Still See Blue: Popular Paper on Sadness, Color Perception Retracted. Available at: http://retractionwatch.com/2015/11/05/got-The-blues-you-can-still-see-blue-After-All-paper-onsadness-And-color-perception-retracted (accessed September 16, 2016)
106. Retraction Watch. (2015b). Expression of Concern Opens Floodgates of Controversy Over Lead in Water Supply Available at: http://retractionwatch.com/2015/04/15/expressionof-concern-opens-floodgates-of-controversy-over-lead-in-watersupply (accessed September 16, 2016)
107. Rice, J.R. (1994). Metrics to Evaluate Academic Departments Purdue University Computer Science Technical Reports Paper 1148
108. Rose, C., and Fisher, N. (2013). Following Lance Armstrong: Excellence corrupted. Harvard Business Review, Case Study # 314015-PDF-ENG, Available at: https://hbr.org/product/following-lance-Armstrong-excellence-corrupted/an/314015-PDF-ENG (accessed September 16, 2016)
109. Saraceno, J. (2013, Jan. 18). Lance Armstrong: I was trying to win at all costs. USA Today. Available at: www.usatoday.com/story/sports/cycling/2013/01/18/lance-Armstrong-oprahwinfrey-Television-interview-Tour-de-france-drugs/1843329 (accessed September 16, 2016)
110. Sarewitz, D. (2016). The pressure to publish pushes down quality. Nature. 533, 147
111. Sauermann, H., and Roach, M. (2012). Science PhD career preferences: Levels, changes, and advisor encouragement PLoS One. 7, e36307
112. Schekman, R. (2013, Dec. 9). How journals like Nature, Cell and Science are damaging science. The Guardian. Available at: www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/09/how-journalsnature-science-cell-damage-science (accessed September 16, 2016)
113. Schneider, R.L., Ness, K.L., Rockwell, S., Shaver, S., and Brutkiewicz, R. (2014). 2012 Faculty Workload Survey Research Report. National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Available at: http://sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/pgasite/documents/webpage/pga-087667.pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
114. Segal, M. (2014, Sep. 15). The big college ranking sham:Why you must ignore U.S. News and Worlds Report list. Salon. Available at: www.salon.com/2014/09/15/the-big-college-ranking-sham-why-you-must-ignore-u-s-news-And-worlds-report-list (accessed September 16, 2016)
115. Seligsohn, A. (2015, Apr. 29). An observation about the mission of higher education. Campus Compact. Available at: http://compact.org/resource-posts/an-observation-About-The-missionof-higher-education (accessed September 16, 2016)
116. Slotnik, D.E., and Perez-Pena, R. (2012, Jan. 30). College Says It Exaggerated SAT Figures for Ratings. The New York Times www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/education/claremont-mckennacollege-says-it-exaggerated-sat-figures.html?smid=pl-share&-r=0 (accessed September 16, 2016)
117. Smaldino, P.E., andMcElreath, R.(2016).Thenaturalselectionofbad science. arXiv.Available at: https://arxiv.org/abs/1605.09511 (accessed September 16, 2016)
118. Stein, S. (2015, Mar. 3). Congrats young scientists, you face the worst research funding in 50 years. The Huffington Post. Available at: www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/03/francis-colliinsnih-funding-n-6795900.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
119. Steneck, N.H. (2007). ORI: Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office
120. Stephan, P. (2012a). How Economics Shapes Science. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press
121. Stephan, P. (2012b). Research efficiency: Perverse incentives Nature. 484, 29
122. Stern, A.M., Casadevall, A., Steen, R.G., and Fang, F.C. (2014) Financial costs and personal consequences of research misconduct resulting in retracted publications. eLife. 3, e02956
123. Stroebe, W., Postmes, T., and Spears, R. (2012). Scientific misconduct and the myth of self-correction in science. Perspect Psychol. Sci. 7, 670
124. Swazey, J.P., Anderson, M.S., Lewis, K.S., and Louis, K.S. (1993) Ethical problems in academic research. Am. Scientist. 81, 542
125. The Economist. (2010, Dec. 16). The Disposable Academic: Why doing a PhD is often a waste of time. Available at: www.economist.com/node/17723223 (accessed September 16, 2016)
126. The Economist. (2013, Oct. 19). How Science Goes Wrong Available at: www.economist.com/news/leaders/21588069-scientific-research-has-changed-world-now-it-needs-changeitself-how-science-goes-wrong (accessed September 16, 2016)
127. The New York Times. (1991, Jun. 4). Commencements; Science Official Tells M.I.T. of Perils to Ethics. Available at: www.nytimes.com/1991/06/04/us/commencements-science-officialtells-mit-of-peril-To-ethics.html (accessed September 16, 2016)
128. Thoman, D.B., Brown, E.R., Mason, A.Z., Harmsen, A.G., and Smith, J.L. (2014). The role of altruistic values in motivating underrepresented minority students for biomedicine BioScience. 65, 183
129. Tierney, J. (2013, Sep. 10). Your Annual Reminder to Ignore the U.S. News & World Report College Rankings. The Atlantic Available at: www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/09/your-Annual-reminder-To-ignore-The-em-us-newsworld-report-em-college-rankings/279103 (accessed September 16, 2016)
130. Tijdink, J.K., Verbeke, R., and Smulders, Y.M. (2014). Publication pressure and scientific misconduct in medical scientists J. Empir. Res. Hum. Res. Ethics. 9, 64
131. U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (U.S. ADA). (2012). Lance Armstrong Receives Lifetime Ban and Disqualification of Competitive Results for Doping Violations Stemming from His Involvement in the United States Postal Service Pro-Cycling Team Doping Conspiracy. Available at: www.usada.org/lance-Armstrong-receives-lifetime-ban-And-disqualificationof-competitive-results-for-doping-violations-stemming-fromhis-involvement-in-The-united-states-postal-service-pro-cyclingteam-doping-conspi (accessed September 16, 2016)
132. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Blood lead levels in residents of homes with elevated lead in tap water-District of Columbia, 2004. CDC Morbid. Mortal Weekly Rep. 53, 268
133. U.S. Cong. House, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. (2015). EPAMismanagement II July 29, 2015Hearing 114th Congress. 1st Session. Available at: https://oversight .house.gov/hearing/epa-mismanagement-part-ii (accessed September 16, 2016)
134. U.S. Cong. House, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. (2016). Examining Federal Administration of the Safe Drinking Water Act in Flint, Michigan Hearing, February 3, 2016. Hearing. 114th Congress. 2nd Session Available at: https://oversight.house.gov/hearing/examiningfederal-Administration-of-The-safe-drinking-water-Act-in-flintmichigan (accessed September 16, 2016)
135. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2013). Office of Research Integrity Annual Report 2012
136. U.S. House Committee on Education and the Workforce,l 2014, The Just In Time Professor http://democrats.edworkforce.house.gov/sites/democrats.edworkforce.house.gov/files/documents/1.24.14-AdjunctEforumReport pdf (accessed September 16, 2016)
137. U.S. House Committee on Science and Technology. (2010). A Public Health Tragedy: How Flawed CDC Data and Faulty Assumptions Endangered Childrens Health in the Nations Capital. Report by the Majority Staff on the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight. Available at: http://archivesdemocrats.science.house.gov/publications/caucus-detail.aspx?NewsID=2843 (accessed September 16, 2016)
138. Van Noorden, R. (2010). Metrics: A profusion of measures Nature. 465, 864
139. Van Noorden, R. (2014). Publishers withdraw more than 120 gibberish papers. Nature. Available at: www.nature.com/news/publishers-withdraw-more-Than-120-gibberish-papers-1.14763 (accessed September 16, 2016)
140. Werner, R. (2015). The focus on bibliometrics makes papers less useful. Nature. 517, 245
141. Wilson, W.A. (2016, May). Scientific regress. First Things Available at: www.firstthings.com/article/2016/05/scientificregress (accessed September 16, 2016)
142. Wolverton, M. (1998). Treading the tenure-Track tightrope: Finding balance between research excellence and quality teaching. Innovative Higher Educ. 23, 61
143. Zetter, K. (2009, Feb. 6). TED: Barry Schwartz and the Importance of Practical Wisdom. WIRED. Available at: www .wired.com/2009/02/ted-barry-schwa (accessed September 16, 2016)
144. Zhivotovsky, L., and Krutovsky, K. (2008). Self-citation can inflate h-index. Scientometrics. 77, 373