Novel Indications for Fecal Microbial Transplantation: Update and Review of the Literature

Digestive Diseases and Sciences

Volumn 62, Issue 5, 2017, Pages 1131-1145

  Cohen, Nathaniel Aviv ^a   Maharshak, Nitsan ^a,b  

^a TEL AVIV SOURASKY MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^b TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

Bacteriotherapy; Enteric microbiome; Gastrointestinal dysbiosis

Indexed keywords

ACUTE GRAFT VERSUS HOST DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; CHRONIC HEPATITIS B; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HEMATOLOGIC DISEASE; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HUMAN; ILEITIS; INFECTION; INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE; IRRITABLE COLON; MENTAL DISEASE; METABOLIC DISORDER; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PATHOGEN CLEARANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPSIS; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; FECES; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; MICROBIOLOGY; PROCEDURES;

FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION; FECES; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HUMANS;

EID: 85015662373     PISSN: 01632116     EISSN: 15732568     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10620-017-4535-9     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Panda S, Guarner F, Manichanh C. Structure and functions of the gut microbiome. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2014;14:290–299.
2. The Human Microbiome Consortium Project. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486:207–214.
3. Ursell LK, Metcalf JL, Parfrey LW, et al. Defining the human microbiome. Nutr Rev. 2012;70:S38–S44. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00493.x.
4. Turnbaugh PJ, Hamady M, Yatsunenko T, et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature. 2009;457:480–484. doi:10.1038/nature07540I.
5. Wheeler DA, Srinivasan M, Egholm M, et al. The complete genome of an individual by massively parallel DNA sequencing. Nature. 2008;452:872–876. doi:10.1038/nature06884I.
6. Brandt LJ, Aroniadis OC, Mellow M, et al. Long-term follow-up of colonoscopic fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:1079–1087. doi:10.1038/ajg.2012.60.
7. Mattila E, Uusitalo-Seppala R, Wuorela M, et al. Fecal transplantation, through colonoscopy, is effective therapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterology. 2012;142:490–496. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.11.037.
8. Brown WR. Fecal microbiota transplantation in treating Clostridium difficile infection. J Dig Dis. 2014;15:405–408. doi:10.1111/1751-2980.12160I.
9. Lawley TD, Clare S, Walker AW, et al. Targeted restoration of the intestinal microbiota with a simple, defined bacteriotherapy resolves relapsing Clostridium difficile disease in mice. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8:e1002995. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002995.
10. Tremaroli V, Backhed F. Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature. 2012;489:242–249. doi:10.1038/nature11552.
11. Sayin SI, Wahlstrom A, Felin J, et al. Gut microbiota regulates bile acid metabolism by reducing the levels of tauro-beta-muricholic acid, a naturally occurring FXR antagonist. Cell Metab. 2013;17:225–235. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.01.003.
12. Kelly CR, Kahn S, Kashyap P, et al. Update on fecal microbiota transplantation 2015: indications, methodologies, mechanisms, and outlook. Gastroenterology. 2015;149:223–237. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2015.05.008.
13. Khoruts A, Dicksved J, Jansson JK, et al. Changes in the composition of the human fecal microbiome after bacteriotherapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2010;44:354–360. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181c87e02.
14. Brown JM, Hazen SL. The gut microbial endocrine organ: bacterially derived signals driving cardiometabolic diseases. Annu Rev Med. 2015;66:343–359. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-060513-093205.
15. Finegold SM, Dowd SE, Gontcharova V, et al. Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe. 2010;16:444–453. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2010.06.008.
16. Frank DN, St Amand AL, Feldman RA, et al. Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:13780–13785. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706625104.
17. Kaur N, Chen CC, Luther J, et al. Intestinal dysbiosis in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut Microbes. 2011;2:211–216. doi:10.4161/gmic.2.4.17863.
18. Kriegel MA, Sefik E, Hill JA, et al. Naturally transmitted segmented filamentous bacteria segregate with diabetes protection in nonobese diabetic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:11548–11553. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108924108.
19. Ochoa-Reparaz J, Mielcarz DW, Ditrio LE, et al. Role of gut commensal microflora in the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Immunol. 2009;183:6041–6050. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0900747.
20. Scher JU, Abramson SB. The microbiome and rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2011;7:569–578. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2011.121.
21. Anderson JL, Edney RJ, Whelan K. Systematic review: faecal microbiota transplantation in the management of inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;36:503–516. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2012.05220.x.
22. Colman RJ, Rubin DT. Fecal microbiota transplantation as therapy for inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crohn’s Colitis. 2014;8:1569–1581. doi:10.1016/j.crohns.2014.08.006.
23. Canavan C, West J, Card T. The epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Epidemiol. 2014;6:71–80. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S40245.
24. Khan S, Chang L. Diagnosis and management of IBS. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;7:565–581. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2010.137.
25. Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, et al. Functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1480–1491. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.061.
26. Peyton L, Greene J. Irritable bowel syndrome: current and emerging treatment options. P&T: Peer Rev J Formul Manag. 2014;39:567–578.
27. Bercik P, Wang L, Verdu EF, et al. Visceral hyperalgesia and intestinal dysmotility in a mouse model of postinfective gut dysfunction. Gastroenterology. 2004;127:179–187.
28. Caenepeel P, Janssens J, Vantrappen G, et al. Interdigestive myoelectric complex in germ-free rats. Dig Dis Sci. 1989;34:1180–1184.
29. Collins S, Verdu E, Denou E, et al. The role of pathogenic microbes and commensal bacteria in irritable bowel syndrome. Dig Dis. 2009;27:85–89. doi:10.1159/000268126.
30. Ringel Y, Maharshak N. Intestinal microbiota and immune function in the pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2013;305:G529–G541. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00207.2012.
31. Aragon G, Graham DB, Borum M, et al. Probiotic therapy for irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;6:39–44.
32. Pimentel M, Lembo A, Chey WD, et al. Rifaximin therapy for patients with irritable bowel syndrome without constipation. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:22–32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1004409.
33. Borody TJ, George L, Andrews P, et al. Bowel-flora alteration: a potential cure for inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome? Med J Aust. 1989;150:604.
34. Andrews P, Barnes P, Borody TJ. Chronic constipation reversed by restoration of the bowel flora. A case and a hypothesis. Eur J Gastroeterol Hepatol. 1992;4:245–247.
35. Andrews P, Borody TJ, Shortis NP, et al. Bacteriotherapy for chronic constipation—long term follow-up. Gastroenterology. 1995;108:A563.
36. Borody TJ, Warren EF, Leis SM, et al. Bacteriotherapy using fecal flora: toying with human motions. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004;38:475–483.
37. Pinn DM, Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ. Is fecal microbiota transplantation the answer for irritable bowel syndrome? A single-center experience. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:1831–1832. doi:10.1038/ajg.2014.295I.
38. Chang BW, Rezaie A. Irritable bowel syndrome-like symptoms following fecal microbiota transplantation: a possible donor-dependent complication. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017;112:186–187. doi:10.1038/ajg.2016.472.
39. Talley NJ, Gabriel SE, Harmsen WS, et al. Medical costs in community subjects with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 1995;109:1736–1741.
40. Hurst RD, Molinari M, Chung TP, et al. Prospective study of the incidence, timing and treatment of pouchitis in 104 consecutive patients after restorative proctocolectomy. Arch Surg. 1996;131(5):497–500. (discussion 1–2).
41. Tulchinsky H, Dotan I, Alper A, et al. Comprehensive pouch clinic concept for follow-up of patients after ileal pouch anal anastomosis: report of 3 years’ experience in a tertiary referral center. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2008;14:1125–1132. doi:10.1002/ibd.20430I.
42. Gionchetti P, Calafiore A, Riso D, et al. The role of antibiotics and probiotics in pouchitis. Ann Gastroenterol. 2012;25:100–105.
43. Machiels K, Sabino J, Vandermosten L, et al. Specific members of the predominant gut microbiota predict pouchitis following colectomy and IPAA in UC. Gut. 2015;. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309398.
44. Maharshak N, Cohen NA, Reshef L, et al. Alterations of enteric microbiota in patients with a normal ileal pouch are predictive of pouchitis. J Crohn’s Colitis. 2016;. doi:10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjw157.
45. Reshef L, Kovacs A, Ofer A, et al. Pouch inflammation is associated with a decrease in specific bacterial taxa. Gastroenterology. 2015;149:718–727. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2015.05.041.
46. Landy J, Al-Hassi H, Mann E, et al. PWE-078 A prospective controlled pilot study of fecal microbiota transplantation for chronic refractory pouchitis. Gut. 2013;62:A162.
47. El-Nachef N, Lucey K, Somsouk M, et al. Su1747 fecal microbiota transplant improves symptoms in patients with pouchitis and induces changes in the microbiome: preliminary results of an open label trial. Gastroenterology. 2016;150:S544.
48. Stallmach A, Lange K, Buening J, et al. Fecal microbiota transfer in patients with chronic antibiotic-refractory pouchitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:441–443. doi:10.1038/ajg.2015.436.
49. Fang S, Kraft CS, Dhere T, et al. Successful treatment of chronic Pouchitis utilizing fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT): a case report. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2016;31:1093–1094. doi:10.1007/s00384-015-2428-yI.
50. Zimmet P, Magliano D, Matsuzawa Y, et al. The metabolic syndrome: a global public health problem and a new definition. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2005;12:295–300.
51. Greenblum S, Turnbaugh PJ, Borenstein E. Metagenomic systems biology of the human gut microbiome reveals topological shifts associated with obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012;109:594–599. doi:10.1073/pnas.1116053109.
52. Murphy EF, Cotter PD, Healy S, et al. Composition and energy harvesting capacity of the gut microbiota: relationship to diet, obesity and time in mouse models. Gut. 2010;59:1635–1642. doi:10.1136/gut.2010.215665.
53. Parks BW, Nam E, Org E, et al. Genetic control of obesity and gut microbiota composition in response to high-fat, high-sucrose diet in mice. Cell Metab. 2013;17:141–152. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2012.12.007.
54. Schwiertz A, Taras D, Schafer K, et al. Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects. Obesity. 2010;18:190–195. doi:10.1038/oby.2009.167.
55. Bailey LC, Forrest CB, Zhang P, et al. Association of antibiotics in infancy with early childhood obesity. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:1063–1069. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.1539.
56. Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(4):913–916 e7. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031.
57. Li SS, Zhu A, Benes V, et al. Durable coexistence of donor and recipient strains after fecal microbiota transplantation. Science. 2016;352:586–589. doi:10.1126/science.aad8852.
58. Wong RJ, Gish RG, Ahmed A. Hepatic encephalopathy is associated with significantly increased mortality among patients awaiting liver transplantation. Liver Transplant. 2014;20:1454–1461. doi:10.1002/lt.23981.
59. Williams R. Review article: bacterial flora and pathogenesis in hepatic encephalopathy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2007;25:17–22. doi:10.1111/j.1746-6342.2006.03217.x.
60. Patidar KR, Bajaj JS. Antibiotics for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis. 2013;28:307–312. doi:10.1007/s11011-013-9383-5.
61. Xu J, Ma R, Chen LF, et al. Effects of probiotic therapy on hepatic encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis: an updated meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials. Hepatobil Pancreat Dis Int. 2014;13:354–360.
62. Rai R, Saraswat VA, Dhiman RK. Gut microbiota: its role in hepatic encephalopathy. J Clin Exp Hepatol. 2015;5:S29–S36. doi:10.1016/j.jceh.2014.12.003.
63. Kao D, Roach B, Park H, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation in the management of hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology. 2016;63:339–340. doi:10.1002/hep.28121.
64. Cowie BC, Carville KS, MacLachlan JH. Mortality due to viral hepatitis in the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010: new evidence of an urgent global public health priority demanding action. Antivir Ther. 2013;18:953–954. doi:10.3851/IMP2654.
65. Yang HI, Lu SN, Liaw YF, et al. Hepatitis B e antigen and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:168–174. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa013215.
66. Chen DS. From hepatitis to hepatoma: lessons from type B viral hepatitis. Science. 1993;262:369–370.
67. Lok AS, McMahon BJ, Brown RS Jr, et al. Antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis B viral infection in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology. 2016;63:284–306. doi:10.1002/hep.28280I.
68. Molloy MJ, Bouladoux N, Belkaid Y. Intestinal microbiota: shaping local and systemic immune responses. Semin Immunol. 2012;24:58–66. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2011.11.008.
69. Knolle PA, Uhrig A, Protzer U, et al. Interleukin-10 expression is autoregulated at the transcriptional level in human and murine Kupffer cells. Hepatology. 1998;27:93–99. doi:10.1002/hep.510270116.
70. Limmer A, Ohl J, Kurts C, et al. Efficient presentation of exogenous antigen by liver endothelial cells to CD8+ T cells results in antigen-specific T-cell tolerance. Nat Med. 2000;6:1348–1354. doi:10.1038/82161.
71. Huang LR, Wohlleber D, Reisinger F, et al. Intrahepatic myeloid-cell aggregates enable local proliferation of CD8(+) T cells and successful immunotherapy against chronic viral liver infection. Nat Immunol. 2013;14:574–583. doi:10.1038/ni.2573.
72. Ling Z, Liu X, Cheng Y, et al. Decreased diversity of the oral microbiota of patients with hepatitis B virus-induced chronic liver disease: a pilot project. Sci Rep. 2015;5:17098. doi:10.1038/srep17098.
73. Wei X, Yan X, Zou D, et al. Abnormal fecal microbiota community and functions in patients with hepatitis B liver cirrhosis as revealed by a metagenomic approach. BMC Gastroenterol. 2013;13:175. doi:10.1186/1471-230X-13-175.
74. Ren YD, Ye ZS, Yang LZ, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation induces HBeAg clearance in patients with positive HBeAg after long-term antiviral therapy. Hepatology. 2016;. doi:10.1002/hep.29008.
75. Borody TJ, Leis SM, Campbell J. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) in multiple sclerosis (MS). Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106:S352.
76. Borody TJ, Rosen DM, Torres M, et al. Myoclonus-dystonia (M-D) mediated by GI microbiota diarrhoea treatment improves M-D symptoms. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106:S352.
77. Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ. Fecal microbiota transplantation: past, present and future. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2013;29:79–84. doi:10.1097/MOG.0b013e32835a4b3e.
78. Veneri D, Bonani A, Franchini M, et al. Idiopathic thrombocytopenia and Helicobacter pylori infection: platelet count increase and early eradication therapy. Blood Transf. 2011;9(3):340–342. doi:10.2450/2011.0014-10.
79. Malnick SD, Oppenheim A, Melzer E. Immune thrombocytopenia caused by fecal microbial transplantation in a patient with severe recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2015;49:888–889. doi:10.1097/MCG.0000000000000404.
80. Borody TJ, Campbell J, Torres M, et al. Reversal of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) with fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106:S352.
81. Ferrara JL, Levine JE, Reddy P, et al. Graft-versus-host disease. Lancet. 2009;373:1550–1561. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60237-3I.
82. Shlomchik WD. Graft-versus-host disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2007;7:340–352. doi:10.1038/nri2000I.
83. Blazar BR, Murphy WJ, Abedi M. Advances in graft-versus-host disease biology and therapy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2012;12:443–458. doi:10.1038/nri3212I.
84. Arpaia N, Campbell C, Fan X, et al. Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature. 2013;504:451–455. doi:10.1038/nature12726I.
85. Atarashi K, Tanoue T, Oshima K, et al. Treg induction by a rationally selected mixture of Clostridia strains from the human microbiota. Nature. 2013;500:232–236. doi:10.1038/nature12331I.
86. Holler E, Butzhammer P, Schmid K, et al. Metagenomic analysis of the stool microbiome in patients receiving allogeneic stem cell transplantation: loss of diversity is associated with use of systemic antibiotics and more pronounced in gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease. Biol Blood Marrow Transpl. 2014;20:640–645. doi:10.1016/j.bbmt.2014.01.030.
87. Steck N, Hoffmann M, Sava IG, et al. Enterococcus faecalis metalloprotease compromises epithelial barrier and contributes to intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2011;141:959–971. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.05.035.
88. Jenq RR, Ubeda C, Taur Y, et al. Regulation of intestinal inflammation by microbiota following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. J Exp Med. 2012;209:903–911. doi:10.1084/jem.20112408.
89. Taur Y, Jenq RR, Perales MA, et al. The effects of intestinal tract bacterial diversity on mortality following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood. 2014;124:1174–1182. doi:10.1182/blood-2014-02-554725.
90. Kakihana K, Fujioka Y, Suda W, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for patients with steroid-resistant/dependent acute graft-versus-host disease of the gut. Blood. 2016;. doi:10.1182/blood-2016-05-717652.
91. Pham TA, Lawley TD. Emerging insights on intestinal dysbiosis during bacterial infections. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2014;17:67–74. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2013.12.002.
92. Li Q, Wang C, Tang C, et al. Therapeutic modulation and reestablishment of the intestinal microbiota with fecal microbiota transplantation resolves sepsis and diarrhea in a patient. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:1832–1834. doi:10.1038/ajg.2014.299.
93. Davies EA, Emmerson AM, Hogg GM, et al. An outbreak of infection with a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a special care baby unit: value of topical mupirocin and of traditional methods of infection control. J Hosp Infect. 1987;10:120–128.
94. Davis KA, Stewart JJ, Crouch HK, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nares colonization at hospital admission and its effect on subsequent MRSA infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:776–782. doi:10.1086/422997I.
95. Doebbeling BN, Breneman DL, Neu HC, et al. Elimination of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in health care workers: analysis of six clinical trials with calcium mupirocin ointment. The Mupirocin Collaborative Study Group. Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1993;17:466–474.
96. Blot SI, Vandewoude KH, Hoste EA, et al. Outcome and attributable mortality in critically Ill patients with bacteremia involving methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:2229–2235.
97. Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, et al. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2003;36:53–59. doi:10.1086/345476I.
98. Centers for Disease. C, Prevention. Vital signs: carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. MMWR. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:165–170.
99. Gupta N, Limbago BM, Patel JB, et al. Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae: epidemiology and prevention. Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2011;53:60–67. doi:10.1093/cid/cir202I.
100. Nordmann P, Naas T, Poirel L. Global spread of carbapenemase-producing. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:1791–1798.
101. Perez F, Van Duin D. Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae: a menace to our most vulnerable patients. Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine. 2013;80:225–233. doi:10.3949/ccjm.80a.12182I.
102. Lawley TD, Walker AW. Intestinal colonization resistance. Immunology. 2013;138:1–11. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2012.03616.xI.
103. Spees AM, Lopez CA, Kingsbury DD, et al. Colonization resistance: battle of the bugs or Menage a Trois with the host? PLoS Pathog. 2013;9:e1003730. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003730I.
104. Millan B, Park H, Hotte N, et al. Fecal Microbial Transplants Reduce Antibiotic-resistant Genes in Patients With Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1479–1486. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw185I.
105. Wei Y, Gong J, Zhu W, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation restores dysbiosis in patients with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus enterocolitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:265. doi:10.1186/s12879-015-0973-1.
106. Bilinski J, Grzesiowski P, Muszynski J, et al. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Inhibits Multidrug-Resistant Gut Pathogens: Preliminary Report Performed in an Immunocompromised Host. Archivum immunologiae et therapiae experimentalis. 2016;64:255–258. doi:10.1007/s00005-016-0387-9I.
107. Crum-Cianflone NF, Sullivan E, Ballon-Landa G. Fecal microbiota transplantation and successful resolution of multidrug-resistant-organism colonization. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53:1986–1989. doi:10.1128/JCM.00820-15.
108. Freedman A, Eppes S. Use of stool transplant to clear fecal colonization with carbapenem-resistant Enterobactericeae (CRE): proof of concept. Philadelphia: Infectious Disease Society of America; 2014.
109. Lagier JC, Million M, Fournier PE, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation for stool decolonization of OXA-48 carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. J Hosp Infect. 2015;90:173–174. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2015.02.013.
110. Singh R, van Nood E, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Donor feces infusion for eradication of Extended Spectrum beta-Lactamase producing Escherichia coli in a patient with end stage renal disease. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20:O977–O978. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12683.
111. Stripling J, Kumar R, Baddley JW, et al. Loss of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus fecal dominance in an organ transplant patient with Clostridium difficile colitis after fecal microbiota transplant. Open forum infectious diseases. 2015;2:ofv078. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofv078.
112. Zhang F, Luo W, Fan Z, et al. Should we standardize the 1700 year old fecal microbiota transplantation? Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:1755.
113. Zhou H, Bei J, Ge H. Dongjin Dynasty. Tianjin, China: Tianjin Science & Technology Press; 2000.
114. Eiseman B, Silen W, Bascom GS, et al. Fecal enema as an adjunct in the treatment of pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Surgery. 1958;44:854–859.
115. Schwan A, Sjolin S, Trottestam U, et al. Relapsing Clostridium difficile enterocolitis cured by rectal infusion of homologous faeces. Lancet. 1983;2:845.
116. Broecker F, Klumpp J, Schuppler M, et al. Long-term changes of bacterial and viral compositions in the intestine of a recovered Clostridium difficile patient after fecal microbiota transplantation. Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud. 2016;2:a000448.
117. Chehoud C, Dryga A, Hwang Y, et al. Transfer of viral communities between human individuals during fecal microbiota transplantation. mBio. 2016;7:e00322.
118. Borody TJ, Nowak A, Finlayson S. The GI microbiome and its role in chronic fatigue syndrome: a summary of bacteriotherapy. J Australas Coll Nutr Environ Med. 2012;31:3–8.
119. Balamurugan R, Rajendiran E, George S, et al. Real-time polymerase chain reaction quantification of specific butyrate-producing bacteria, Desulfovibrio and Enterococcus faecalis in the feces of patients with colorectal cancer. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;23:1298–1303. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2008.05490.x.
120. Repass J, Maherali N, Owen K, et al. Registered report: Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma. eLife. 2016;5:e10012. doi:10.7554/eLife.10012.
121. Wang T, Cai G, Qiu Y, et al. Structural segregation of gut microbiota between colorectal cancer patients and healthy volunteers. ISME J. 2012;6:320–329. doi:10.1038/ismej.2011.109.
122. Dominguez-Bello MG, De Jesus-Laboy KM, Shen N, et al. Partial restoration of the microbiota of cesarean-born infants via vaginal microbial transfer. Nat Med. 2016;22:250–253. doi:10.1038/nm.4039.
123. Agrawal M, Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ, et al. The long-term efficacy and safety of fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent, severe, and complicated Clostridium difficile infection in 146 elderly individuals. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2016;50:403–407. doi:10.1097/MCG.0000000000000410.
124. Kelly CR, Ihunnah C, Fischer M, et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in immunocompromised patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:1065–1071. doi:10.1038/ajg.2014.133.
125. Kunde S, Pham A, Bonczyk S, et al. Safety, tolerability, and clinical response after fecal transplantation in children and young adults with ulcerative colitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2013;56:597–601. doi:10.1097/MPG.0b013e318292fa0d.
126. Baxter M, Ahmad T, Colville A, et al. Fatal Aspiration Pneumonia as a Complication of Fecal Microbiota Transplant. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:136–137. doi:10.1093/cid/civ247.
127. Cohen NA, Livovsky DM, Yaakobovitch S, et al. A retrospective comparison of fecal microbial transplantation methods for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Isr Med Assoc J. 2016;18(10):594–599.
128. Alang N, Kelly CR. Weight gain after fecal microbiota transplantation. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv004. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofv004.
129. Moayyedi P, Surette MG, Kim PT, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation induces remission in patients with active ulcerative colitis in a randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology. 2015;149:102–109 e6. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2015.04.001.