Emerging concepts for management of river ecosystems and challenges to applied integration of physical and biological sciences in the Pacific Northwest, USA

International Journal of River Basin Management

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 85-97

  Rieman, Bruce ^a   Dunham, Jason ^a,b   Clayton, James ^a  

^a ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^b U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

Author keywords

Diversity; Integrity; Natural variability; Scale; Template

Indexed keywords

EID: 85009592413     PISSN: 15715124     EISSN: 18142060     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15715124.2006.9635279     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Adkison, M. (1995). “Population Differentiation in Pacific Salmon: Local Adaptation, Genetic Drift, or the Environment,” Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 52, 2762-2777.
2. Allendorf, F. and Leary, R. (1988). “Conservation and Distribution of Genetic Variation in a Polytypic Species the Cutthroat Trout,” Cons. Biol., 2, 170-184.
3. Angermeier, P. (1997). Conceptual roles of biological integrity and diversity, in J. Williams, C. Wood and M. Dombeck (eds.), Watershed Restoration: Principles and Practices, American Fisheries Society: Bethesda MD, pp. 49-65.
4. Angermeier, P. and Karr, J. (1994). “Biological Integrity versus Biological Diversity as Policy Directives,” BioScience, 44, 690-697.
5. Baxter, C. and Hauer, F. (2000). “Geomorphology, Hyporheic Exchange, and Selection of Spawning Habitat by Bull Trout (Salvelinus confluentus),” Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 57, 1470-1481.
6. Beechie, T. and Bolton, S. (1999). “An Approach to Restoring Salmonid Habitat-Forming Processes in Pacific Northwest Watersheds,” Fisheries, 24(4), 6-15.
7. Beissinger, S. and Westphal, M. (1998). “On the Use of Demographic Models of Population Viability in Endangered Species Management,” J. Wild. Manage., 62, 821-841.
8. Benda, L., Miller, D., Dunne, T., Reeves, G. and Agee, J. (1998). Dynamic landscape systems, in R. Naiman and R. Bilby (eds.), River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 261-288.
9. Benda, L.E. and Sias, J.C. (2003). “A Quantitative Framework for Evaluating the Mass Balance of In-Stream Organic Debris,” ForestEcol. Manage., 172, 1-16.
10. Benda, L.E., Miller, D., Bigelow, P. and Andras, K. (2003). “Effects of Post-Wildfire Erosion on Channel Environments, Boise River, Idaho,” Forest Ecol. Manage., 178(1-2), 105-119.
11. Benda, L., Poff, N.L., Miller, D., Dunne, T., Reeves, G., Pess, G. and Pollock, M. (2004). “The Network Dynamics Hypothesis: How Channel Networks Structure Riverine Habitats,” BioScience, 54, 413-427.
12. Beschta, R., Bilby, R., Brown, G., Holtby, L. and Hofstra, T. (1987). Stream temperature and aquatic habitat: Fisheries and forestry interactions, in E. Salo and T. Cundy (eds.), Streamside Management: Forestry and Fishery Interactions Contribution No. 57, Institute of Forest Resources/University of Washington, Seattle, pp. 132-191.
13. Bilby, R.E. et al. (2003). A review of strategies for recovering tributary habitat. Northwest Power Planning Council, National Marine Fisheries Service, 2003-2, OR.
14. Bisson, P., Reeves, G., Bilby, R. and Sedell, J. (1997). Desired future conditions? in Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options, Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 447-474.
15. Brannon, E.L., Powell, M.S., Quinn, T.P. and Talbot, A. (2004). “Population Structure of Columbia River Basin Chinook Salmon and Steelhead Trout,” Reviews in Fisheries Science, 12, 99-232.
16. Callicott, J. and Mumford, K. (1997). “Ecological Sustainability as a Conservation Concept,” Cons. Biol., 11, 32-40.
17. Chandler, G. and Bjornn, T. (1988). “Abundance, Growth, and Interactions of Juvenile Steelhead Relative to Time of Emergence,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 117, 432-443.
18. Chapin, F. et al. (2000). “Consequences of Changing Biodiversity,” Nature, 405, 234-242.
19. Chatters, J., Butler, V., Scott, M., Anderson, D. and Neitzel, D. (1995). A paleoscience approach to estimating the effects of climatic warming on salmonid fisheries of the Columbia River basin, in R. Beamish (ed.), Climate Change and Northern Fish Populations, Canadian Special Publications in Fisheries Aquatic Sciences 121, pp. 489-496.
20. Christensen, N. et al. (1995). The scientific basis for ecosystem management: An assessment by the Ecological Society of America. Ecological Society of America: Washington DC.
21. Cissel, J. et al. (1998). A landscape plan based on historical fire regimes for a managed forest ecosystem: The Augusta Creek study, Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW-GTR-422, USDA Forest Service, Portland, OR.
22. Cissel, J., Swanson, F. and Weisberg, P. (1999). “Landscape Management Using Historical Fire Regimes: Blue River, Oregon,” Ecol. Appl., 9, 1217-1234.
23. Clayton, J. and Kennedy, D. (1985). “Nutrient Losses from Timber Harvest in the Idaho Batholith,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 49(4), 1041-1049.
24. Conroy, M., Cohen, Y, James, F., Matsinos, Y. and Maurer, B. (1995). “Parameter Estimation, Reliability, and Model Improvement for Spatially Explicit Models of Animal Populations,” Ecol. Appl., 5, 17-19.
25. Cooper, S., Diehl, S., Kratz, K. and Sarnelle, O. (1998). “Implications of Scale for Patterns and Processes in Stream Ecology,” Aust. J. Ecol., 23, 27-40.
26. Dale, V. et al. (2000). “Ecological Principles and Guidelines for Managing the Use of Land,” Ecol. Appl., 10, 639-670.
27. Dunham, J. and Rieman, B. (1999). “Metapopulation Structure of Bull Trout: Influences of Physical, Biotic and Geometrical Landscape Characteristics,” Ecol. Appl., 9, 642-655.
28. Dunham, J. and Vinyard, G. (1997). “Incorporating Stream Level Variability into Analyses of Fish-Habitat Relationships: Some Cautionary Examples,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 126, 323-329.
29. Dunham, J., Peacock, M., Rieman, B., Schroeter, R. and Vinyard, G. (1999). “Local and Geographic Variability in the Distribution of Stream-Living Lahontan Cutthroat Trout,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 128, 875-889.
30. Dunham, J., Rieman, B. and Peterson, J. (2002). Patch-based models to predict species occurrence: Lessons from salmonid fishes in streams, in J. Scott, P. Heglund, M. Morrison, M. Raphael, J. Haufler and B. Wall (eds.), Predicting Species Occurrences: Issues of Accuracy and Scale, Island Press: Covelo, CA, pp. 327-334.
31. Dunham, J.B., Vinyard, G.L. and Rieman, B.E. (1997). “Habitat Fragmentation and Extinction Risk of Lahontan Cutthroat Trout,” N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., 17, 1126-1133.
32. Dunham, J.B., Young, M.K., Gresswell, R.E. and Rieman, B.E. (2003). “Effects of Fires on Fish Populations: Landscape Perspectives on Persistence of Native Fishes and Nonnative Fish Invasions,” Forest Ecol. Manage., 178(1,2), 183-196.
33. Duttilleul, P. (1998a). Incorporating scale in ecological experiments: Study design, in D. Peterson and V. Parker (eds.), Ecological Scale: Theory and Applications, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 369-386.
34. Duttilleul, P. (1998b). Incorporating scale in ecological experiments: Data analysis, in D. Peterson and V. Parker (eds.), Ecological Scale: Theory and Applications, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 387-428.
35. Engstrom, D., Fritz, S., Almendinger, J. and Juggins, S. (2000). “Chemical and Biological Trends During Lake Evolution in Recently Deglaciated Terrain,” Nature, 408, 161-166.
36. Fausch, K., Hawkes, C. and Parsons, M. (1988). Models that predict standing crop of stream fish from habitat variables: 1950-85, Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW-GTR-213, USDA Forest Service, Portland, OR.
37. Fausch, K., Nakano, S. and Ishigaki, K. (1994). “Distribution of Two Congeneric Charrs in Streams of Hokkaido Island, Japan: Considering Multiple Factors Across Scales,” Oecologia, 100, 1-12.
38. Fausch, K.D., Torgersen, C.E., Baxter, C.V. and Li, H.W. (2002). “Landscapes to Riverscapes: Bridging the Gap between Research and Conservation of Stream Fishes,” BioScience, 52.
39. Forbes, S. (1887). The Lake as a Microcosm, Bulletin of the Science Association of Peoria, Illinois, pp. 77-87.
40. Franklin, J. (1993). “Preserving Biodiversity: Species, Ecosystems, or Landscapes?” Ecol. Appl., 3, 202-205.
41. Frissell, C. (1993). “Topology of Extinction and Endangerment of Native Fishes in the Pacific Northwest and California (USA),” Cons. Biol. 7(2), 342-354.
42. Frissell, C. and Bayles, D. (1996). “Ecosystem Management and the Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity and Ecological Integrity,” Water Resour. Bull., 229-240.
43. Frissell, C., Liss, W., Gresswell, R., Nawa, R. and Ebersole, J. (1997). A resource in crisis: Changing the measure of salmon management, in D. Stouder, R. Bisson and R. Naiman (eds.), Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options, Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 411-446.
44. Frissell, C., Liss, W., Warren, C. and Hurley, M. (1986). “A Hierarchical Framework for Stream Habitat Classification: Viewing Streams in a Watershed Context,” Environ. Manage., 10, 199-214.
45. Gregory, S. and Bisson, P. (1997). Degradation and loss of anadromous salmonid habitat in the Pacific Northwest, in, D. Stouder, P. Bisson and R. Naiman (eds.), Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options, Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 277-314.
46. Gresswell, R. (1999). “Fire and Aquatic Ecosystems in Forested Biomes of North America,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 128, 193-221.
47. Gross, M. (1991). “Salmon Breeding Behavior and Life History Evolution in Changing Environments,” Ecology, 72(4), 1180-1186.
48. Groves, C.R. (2003). Drafting a Conservation Blueprint: A Practitioner’s Guide to Planning for Biodiversity. Island Press, Washington, DC.
49. Halupka, K.C., Willson, M.F., Bryant, M.D., Everest, F.H. and Gharrett, A.J. (2003). “Conservation of Population Diversity of Pacific Salmon in Southeast Alaska,” N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., 23, 1057-1086.
50. Hanksi, I. (1999). Metapopulation Ecology, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
51. Harris, L. (1984). The Fragmented Forest, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
52. Hawkins, C. et al. (1993). “A Hierarchical Approach to Classifying Stream Habitat Features,” Fisheries, 18(6), 3-12.
53. Healey, M. (1991). Life history of chinook salmon, in C. Groot and L. Margolis (eds.), Pacific Salmon Life Histories, UBC Press, British Columbia Canada, pp. 311-393.
54. Healey, M. (1994). “Variation in the Life History Characteristics of Chinook Salmon and its Relevance to Conservation of the Sacramento Winter Run of Chinook Salmon,” Cons. Biol., 8(3), 876-877.
55. Healey, M. and Prince, A. (1995). Scales of variation in life history tactics of Pacific salmon and the conservation of phenotype and genotype, in J. Nehlsen (ed.), Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda MD, pp. 176-184.
56. Hilborn, R., Quinn, T.P., Schindler, D.E. and Rogers, D.E. (2003). “Biocomplexity and Fisheries Sustainability,” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 100, 6564-6568.
57. Holling, C.S. and Meffe, G.K. (1995). “Command and Control and the Pathology of Natural Resouce Management,” Cons. Biol., 10(2), 328-337.
58. Hunter, JR. M. (1991). Coping with ignorance: the coarse-filter strategy for maintaining biodiversity, in K. Kohm (ed.), Balancing on the Brink of Extinction, Island Press: CA, pp. 266-281.
59. Hynes, H. (1970). The Ecology of Running Waters, University of Toronto Press.
60. Imhof, J., Fitzgibbon, J. and Annable, W. (1996). “A Hierarchical Evaluation System for Characterizing Watershed Ecosystems for Fish Habitat,” Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 52(1), 312-326.
61. Johnson, L. and Gage, S. (1997). “LandscapeApproaches to the Analysis of Aquatic Ecosystems,” Freshwater Biol., 37, 113-132.
62. Ketcheson, G., Megahan, W. and King, J. (1999). “R1-R4” and “BOISED” Sediment Prediction Model Tests using Forest Roads in Granitics,” J. Am. Water Resour. As., 35(1), 83-98.
63. King, A. (1997). Hierarchy theory: a guide to system structure for wildlife biologists, in J. Bissonette (ed.), Wildlife and Landscape Ecology: Effects of Pattern and Scale, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 185-214.
64. King, J. (1994). Streamflow and sediment yield responses to forest practices in north Idaho, in D. Baumgartner, J. Lotan and J. Tonn (eds.), Proceedings of the Interior Cedar-Hemlock-White Pine Forests: Ecology and Management, March 2-4, 1993, Spokane, WA, Washington State University, Pullman, pp. 213-220.
65. Kirchner, J.W., Finkel, R.C., Riebe, C.S., Granger, D.E., Clayton, J.L., King, J.G., and Megahan, W.F. (2001). “Mountain Erosion Over 10yr, 10k.y. and 10m.y. Time Scales,” Geology, 29(7), 591-594.
66. Labbe, T. and Fausch, K. (2000). “Dynamics of Intermittent Stream Habitat Regulate Persistence of a Threatened Fish at Multiple Scales,” Ecol.Appl., 10, 1774-1791.
67. Landres, P., Morgan, P. and Swanson, F. (1999). “Overview of the Use of Natural Variability Concepts in Managing Ecological Systems,” Ecol. Appl., 9, 1179-1188.
68. Lee, D., Sedell, J., Rieman, B., Thurow, R. and Williams, J. (1997). Broadscale assessment of aquatic species and habitats, Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW-GTR-328, USDA Forest Service, Portland, OR.
69. Lichatowich, J. (1999). Salmon Without Rivers: A History of the Pacific Salmon Crisis. Island Press, Covelo, CA.
70. Ludwig, D., Hilborn, R. and Walters, C. (1993). “Uncertainty, Resource Exploitation and Conservation: Lessons from History,” Science, 260, 17-36.
71. Lytle, D.A. and Poff, N.L. (2004). “Adaptation to Natural Flow Regimes,” Trends Ecol. Evol., 19(2), 94-100.
72. Magurran, A. (1998). Ecological Diversity and its Measurement. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
73. Mantua, N., Hare, S., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. and Francis, R. (1997). “A Pacific Interdecadal Climate Oscillation with Impacts on Salmon Production,” B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 1069-1079.
74. McKenzie, D., Gedalof, Z., Peterson, D.L. and Mote, P. (2004). “Climate Change, Wildfire and Conservation,” Cons. Biol., 18, 890-902.
75. Megahan, W., King, J. and Seyedbagheri, K. (1995). “Hydrologic and Erosional Responses of a Granitic Watershed to Helicopter Logging and Broadcast Burning,” Forest Sci., 41(4), 777-795.
76. Miller, D., Luce, C. and Benda, L. (2003). “Time, Space and Episodicity of Physical Disturbance in Streams,” Forest Ecol. Manage., 178(1-2), 121-140.
77. Montgomery, D. (1999). “Process Domains and the River Continuum,” J. Am. Water Resour. As., 35, 397-410.
78. Montgomery, D., Beamer, E., Pess, G. and Quinn, T. (1999). “Channel Type and Salmonid Spawning Distribution and Abundance,” Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 56, 377-387.
79. Mote, P. et al. (1999). Impacts of Climate Variability and Change in the Pacific Northwest, JISAO/SMA Climate Impacts Group, University of Washington, Seattle.
80. Naiman, R. and Turner, M. (2000). “A Future Perspective on North America’s Freshwater Ecosystems,” Ecol. Appl., 10, 958-970.
81. Naiman, R.J. (1998). Biotic stream classification, in R.J. Naiman and R.E. Bilby (eds.), River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Springer-Verlag, NY, pp. 97-119.
82. Naiman, R., Bilby, R. and Bisson, P. (2000). “Riparian Ecology and Management in the Pacific Coastal Rain Forest,” BioScience, 50, 996-1011.
83. Nehlsen, W., Williams, J. and Lichatowich, J. (1991). “Pacific Salmon at the Crossroads: Stocks at Risk from California, Oregon, Idaho and Washington,” Fisheries, 16(2), 4-21.
84. Nikol’skiy, G. (1969). “Parallel Intraspecific Variation in Fishes,” Probl. Ichthyol., 9, 4-8.
85. Nitschke, C.R. (2005). “Does Forest Harvesting Emulate Fire Disturbance? A Comparison of Effects on Selected Attributes in Coniferous-Dominated Headwater Systems,” Forest Ecol. Manage., 214, 305-319.
86. Norton, B. and Ulanowicz, R. (1992). “Scale and Biodiversity Policy: A Hierarchical Approach,” AMBIO, 21(3), 244-249.
87. Noss, R. (1990). “Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach,” Cons. Biol., 4(4), 355-364.
88. Noss, R. and Cooperider, A. (1994). Saving Nature’s Legacy: Protecting and Restoring Biodiversity. Island Press, Covelo CA.
89. Noss, R., Laroe, E. and Scott, J. (1995). Endangered ecosystems of the United States: A preliminary assessment of loss and degradation, Biological Report 28, USDI National Biological Service, Washington DC.
90. Palmer, M.A. et al. (2005). “Standards for Ecologically Successful River Restoration,” J.Appl. Ecol., 42, 208-217.
91. Petchey, O.L. and Gaston, K.J. (2002). “Functional Diversity (FD), Species Richness and Community Composition,” Ecology Letters, 5, 402-411.
92. Pickett, S. and White, P. (1985). The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Academic Press, New York.
93. Poff, N. (1997). “Landscape Filters and Species Traits: Towards Mechanistic Understanding and Prediction in Stream Ecology,” J. N.Am. Benthol. Soc., 16, 391-409.
94. Poff, N. and Allan, J. (1995). “Functional Organization of Stream Fish Assemblages in Relation to Hydrological Variability,” Ecology, 76(2), 606-627.
95. Poff, N. et al. (1997). “The Natural Flow Regime: A Paradigm for River Conservation and Restoration,” BioScience, 47, 769-784.
96. Poff, N. and Ward, J. (1990). “Physical Habitat Template of Lotic Systems: Recovery in the Context of Historical Pattern of Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity,” Environ. Manage., 14(5), 629-645.
97. Poff, N.L., Brinson, M.M. and Day, JR. J.W. (2002). Aquatic ecosystems and global climate change: Potential impacts on inland freshwater and coastal wetland ecosystems in the United States. Report from the Pew Center on Global Climate Change on line at: http://www.pewclimate.org/global-warming-in-depth/all_reports/aquatic_ecosystems/index.cfm.
98. Poole, G.C. et al. (2004). “The Case for Regime-Based Water Quality Standards,” BioScience, 54(2), 155-161.
99. Poole, G.C. and Berman, C.H. (2001). “An Ecological Perspective on Instream Temperature: Natural Heat Dynamics and Mechanisms of Human-Caused Thermal Degradation,” Environ. Manage., 27, 787-802.
100. Pringle, C. (1999). “Threats to U.S. Public Lands from Cumulative Hydrologic Alterations Outside Their Boundaries,” Ecol.Appl., 10, 971-989.
101. Purvis, A. and Hector, A. (2000). “Getting the Measure of Biodiversity,” Nature, 405, 212-219.
102. Quinn, T., Unwin, M. and Kinnison, M. (2000). “Evolution of Temporal Isolation in the Wild: Genetic Divergence in Timing of Migration and Breeding by Introduced Chinook Salmon Populations,” Evolution, 54, 1372-1385.
103. Quinn, T.P. (2005). The Behavior and Ecology of Pacific Salmon and Trout. University of Washington Press, WA.
104. Reeves, G., Benda, L., Burnett, K., Bisson, P. and Sedell, J. (1995). “A Disturbance-Based Approach to Maintaining and Restoring Freshwater Habitats of Evolutionary Significant Units of Anadromous Salmonids in the Pacific Northwest,” Am. Fish. Soc. Symp., 17, 334-349.
105. Reeves, H., Bisson, P. and Dambacher, J. (1998). Fish communities, in R. Naiman and R. Bilby (eds.), River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 200-234.
106. Reice, S., Wissmar, R. and Naiman, R. (1990). “Disturbance Regimes, Resilience and Recovery of Animal Communities and Habitats in Lotic Ecosystems,” Environ. Manage., 14, 647-659.
107. Rieman, B. and Clayton, J. (1997). “Fire and Fish: Issues of Forest Health and Conservation of Native Fishes,” Fisheries, 22(11), 6-15.
108. Rieman, B. and Dunham, J. (2000). “Metapopulations and Salmonid Fishes: A Synthesis of Life History Patterns and Empirical Observations,” Ecol. Freshw. Fish, 9, 51-64.
109. Rieman, B. and McIntyre, J. (1995). “Occurrence of Bull Trout in Naturally Fragmented Habitat Patches of Varied Size,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 124, 285-296.
110. Rieman, B., Hessburg, P., Lee, D., Thurow, R. and Sedell, J. (2000). “Toward an Integrated Classification of Ecosystems: Defining Opportunities for Managing Fish and Forest Health,” Environ. Manage., 25, 425-444.
111. Rieman, B., Lee, D. and Thurow, R. (1997). “Distribution, Status and Likely Future Trends of Bull Trout within the Columbia River and Klamath Basins,” N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., 17, 1111-1125.
112. Rieman, B.E., Lee, D., Burns, D., Gresswell, R., Young, M., Stowell, R. and Howell, P. (2003). “Status of Native Fishes in the Western United States and Issues for Fire and Fuels Management,” Forest Ecol. Manage., 178(1-2), 197-211.
113. Root, T. and Schneider, S. (1995). “Ecology and Climate: Research Strategies and Implications,” Science, 269, 334-341.
114. Ruckelshaus, M.H., Levin, P., Johnson, J.B. and Kareiva, P.M. (2002). “The Pacific Salmon Wars: What Science Brings to the Challenge of Recovering Species,” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 33, 665-706.
115. Schaffer, W.M. (2004). Life histories, evolution and salmonids, in A.P. Hendry and S.C. Stearns, Evolution Illuminated: Salmon and their Relatives, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 20-51.
116. Scheffer, M. and Beets, J. (1994). “Ecological Models and the Pitfalls of Causality,” Hydrobiologia, 275/276, 115-124.
117. Schlosser, I. (1995). “Critical Landscape Attributes that Influence Fish Population Dynamics in Headwater Streams,” Hydrobiologia, 303, 71-81.
118. Scott, J. et al. (1993). “Gap Analysis: A Geographic Approach to Protection of Biological Diversity,” Wildlife Monogr., 123, 1-41.
119. Seyfried, M. and Wilcox, B. (1995). “Scale and the Nature of Spatial Variability: Field Examples having Implications for Hydrologic Modeling,” Water Resour. Res., 31, 173-184.
120. Skülason, S. and Smith, T. (1995). “Resource Polymorphisms inVertebrates,” Trends Ecol. Evol., 10, 366-370.
121. Southwood, T. (1977). “Habitat, the Template for Ecological Strategies?” J. Anim. Ecol., 46, 337-365.
122. Stouder, D., Bisson, P. and Naiman R. (eds.) (1997). Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options, Chapman and Hall, New York.
123. Swanson, F., Franklin, J. and Sedell, J. (1990). Landscape patterns, disturbance, and management in the Pacific Northwest, USA, in Zonneveld and Forman (eds.), An Ecological Perspective, Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 191-213.
124. Swanson, F., Jones, J., Wallin, D. and Cissel, J. (1993). Natural variability: Implications for ecosystem management. Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment, Vol. II, Ecosystem Management: Principles and Applications. USDA Forest Service Research, Washington Office, Washington DC.
125. Taylor, E. (1990). “Environmental Correlates of Life-History Variation in Juvenile Chinook Salmon,” Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum). J. Fish Biol., 37, 1-17.
126. Taylor, E. (1991). “A Review of Local Adaptation in Salmonidae, with Particular Reference to Pacific and Atlantic Salmon,” Aquaculture, 98, 185-207.
127. Taylor, E. (1999). “Species Pairs of North Temperate Freshwater Fishes: Evolution, Taxonomy, and Conservation,” Rev. Fish Biol. Fisher., 9, 299-324.
128. Torgersen, C., Price, D., Li, H. and McIntosh, B. (1999). “Multiscale Thermal Refugia and Stream Habitat Associations of Chinook Salmon in Northeastern Oregon,” Ecol. Appl., 9, 301-319.
129. Turner, M. (1989). “Landscape Ecology: The Effect of Pattern on Process,” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 20, 171-197.
130. Turner, M.G. (2005). “Landscape Ecology: What is the State of the Science?” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 36, 319-344.
131. Urban, D., O’Neill, R. and Shugart, Jr. H. (1987). “Landscape Ecology,” BioScience, 37, 119-127.
132. Utter, F., Seeb, J. and Seeb, L. (1993). “Complementary Uses of Ecological and Biochemical Genetic Data in Identifying and Conserving Salmon Populations,” Fish. Res., 18, 59-76.
133. Ward, J.V. and Tockner, K. (2001). “Biodiversity: Towards a Unifying Theme for River Ecology,” Freshwater Biol., 46, 807-819.
134. West-Eberhard, M. (1989). “Phenotypic Plasticity and the Origins of Diversity,” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 20, 249-278.
135. Wiens, J.A. (2002). “Riverine Landscapes: Taking Landscape Ecology into the Water,” Freshwater Biology, 47, 501-515.
136. Wiley, M., Kohler, S. and Seelbach, P. (1997). “Reconciling Landscape and Local Views of Aquatic Communities: Lessons from Michigan Trout Streams,” Freshwater Biol., 37, 133-148.
137. Williams, R. et al. (1999). “Return to the River: Scientific Issues in the Restoration of Salmonid Fishes in the Columbia River,” Fisheries, 24, 10-19.
138. Willson, M. (1997). Variation in salmonid life histories: patterns and perspectives. PNW-RP-498, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
139. Wood, C. (1995). Life history variation and population structure in sockeye salmon, in J. Nehlsen (ed.), Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem, American Fisheries Society, BethesdaMD, pp. 195-216.