Post-stroke dementia - a comprehensive review

BMC Medicine

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2017, Pages

  Mijajlović, Milija D ^a   Pavlović, Aleksandra ^a   Brainin, Michael ^b   Heiss, Wolf Dieter ^c   Quinn, Terence J ^d   Ihle Hansen, Hege B ^e   Hermann, Dirk M ^f   Assayag, Einor Ben ^g,h   Richard, Edo ⁱ   Thiel, Alexander ^j   Kliper, Efrat ^g,h   Shin, Yong Il ^k   Kim, Yun Hee ^l   Choi, SeongHye ^m   Jung, San ⁿ   Lee, Yeong Bae ^o   Sinanović, Osman ^p   Levine, Deborah A ^q   Schlesinger, Ilana ^r,s   Mead, Gillian ^t   Milošević, Vuk ^u   Leys, Didier ^v   Hagberg, Guri ^e   Ursin, Marie Helene ^e   Teuschl, Yvonne ^b   Prokopenko, Semyon ^w   Mozheyko, Elena ^w   Bezdenezhnykh, Anna ^w   Matz, Karl ^b   Aleksić, Vuk ^x   Muresanu, DafinFior ^y   Korczyn, Amos D ^z   Bornstein, Natan M ^g,h   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE   (Serbia)

^b DANUBE UNIVERSITY KREMS   (Austria)

^c MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR NEUROLOGICAL RESEARCH   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

^e VESTRE VIKEN HOSPITAL TRUST   (Norway)

^f UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ESSEN   (Germany)

^g TEL AVIV SOURASKY MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^h SHAARE ZEDEK MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

ⁱ RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^j MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^k Pusan National University School of Medicine   (South Korea)

^l Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine   (South Korea)

^m Inha University School of Medicine   (South Korea)

ⁿ Hallym University Medical Center   (South Korea)

^o Gachon University   (South Korea)

^p UNIVERSITY OF TUZLA   (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

^q UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^r U1171 Department of Neurology ^*  (Israel)

^s TECHNION ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Israel)

^t UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^u Clinical Center Ni   (Serbia)

^v UNIV LILLE   (France)

^w KRASNOYARSK STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Russian Federation)

^x Clinical Hospital Center Zemun   (Serbia)

^y Department of Clinical Neurosciences   (Romania)

^z TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

more..

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Cognitive impairment; Definitions and classification; Dementia; Diagnosis; Interventions; Neuroimaging; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ACTOVEGIN; ALPHA 1 ANTITRYPSIN; APOLIPOPROTEIN E; BETA SECRETASE; BETA2 GLYCOPROTEIN 1; CEREBROLYSIN; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; CYANOCOBALAMIN; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE; FLUOXETINE; FOLIC ACID; GELATINASE A; GELATINASE B; HOMOCYSTEINE; MEMANTINE; MICRORNA; MICRORNA 146A; MICRORNA 31; MICRORNA 93; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR 1; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN INFARCTION; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEMENTIA; DETERIORATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FOLIC ACID BLOOD LEVEL; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; HOSPITAL ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION SCALE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LEUKOARAIOSIS; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MULTIINFARCT DEMENTIA; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POST STROKE DEMENTIA; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RANKIN SCALE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REPETITIVE TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TRANSCRANIAL DIRECT CURRENT STIMULATION; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; AGED; COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION; COMPLICATION; FEMALE; GERIATRIC ASSESSMENT; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTOR; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY;

AGED; BIOMARKERS; COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION; DEMENTIA; FEMALE; GERIATRIC ASSESSMENT; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTORS; STROKE; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 85009493244     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17417015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Strong K, Mathers C, Bonita R. Preventing stroke: saving lives around the world. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:182-7.
2. Lees R, Fearon P, Harrison JK, Broomfield NM, Quinn TJ. Cognitive and mood assessment in stroke research: focused review of contemporary studies. Stroke. 2012;43:1678-80.
3. McKevitt C, Fudge N, Redfern J, et al. Self-reported long term needs after stroke. Stroke. 2011;42:1398-3.
4. Pollock A, St George B, Fenton M, Firkins L. Top ten research priorities relating to life after stroke. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:209.
5. Fride Y, Adamit T, Maeir A, Ben Assayag E, Bornstein NM, Korczyn AD, Katz N. What are the correlates of cognition and participation to return to work after first ever mild stroke? Top Stroke Rehabil. 2015;22(5):317-25.
6. Ritchie CW, Muniz Terrera G, Quinn TJ. Dementia trials and dementia tribulations: methodological and analytical challenges in dementia research. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2015;7:31.
7. Pendlebury ST, Mariz J, Bull L, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. Impact of different operational definitions on mild cognitive impairment rate and MMSE and MoCA performance in transient ischaemic attack and stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;36:355-62.
8. Ihle-Hansen H, Thommessen B, Wyller TB, Engedal K, Øksengård AR, Stenset V, Løken K, Aaberg M, Fure B. Incidence and subtypes of MCI and dementia 1 year after first-ever stroke in patients without pre-existing cognitive impairment. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;32:401-7.
9. Erkinjuntti T, Gauthier S. Diagnosing vascular cognitive impairment and dementia: concepts and controversies. In: Wahlund L, Erkinjuntti T, Gauthier S, editors. Vascular cognitive impairment in clinical practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 3-10.
10. Gorelick PB, Nyenhuis D. Stroke and cognitive decline. JAMA. 2015;314(1):29-30. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.7149.
11. Van Rooij FG, Kessels RP, Richard E, De Leeuw FE, van Dijk EJ. Cognitive impairment in transient ischemic attack patients: a systematic review. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2016;42(1-2):1-9.
12. Brainin M, Tuomileheto J, Heiss WD, et al. Post-stroke cognitive decline: an update and perspectives for clinical research. Eur J Neurol. 2015;22:229-38.
13. Henon H, Pasquier F, Durieu I, et al. Pre-existing dementia in stroke patients: baseline frequency, associated factors, and outcome. Stroke. 1997;28:2429-36.
14. Wagle J, Farner L, Flekkøy K, et al. Early post-stroke cognition in stroke rehabilitation patients predicts functional outcome at 13 months. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;31:379-7.
15. Lees R, Stott DJ, Quinn TJ, Broomfield NM. Feasibility and diagnostic accuracy of early mood screening to diagnose persisting clinical depression/anxiety disorder after stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014;37:323-9.
16. Yu KH, Cho SJ, Oh MS, Jung S, Lee JH, Shin JH, Koh IS, Cha JK, Park JM, Bae HJ, Kang Y, Lee BC, Korean-Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards Study Group. Cognitive impairment evaluated with vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards in a multicenter prospective stroke cohort in Korea. Stroke. 2013;44:786-8.
17. Hachinski V, Iadecola C, Petersen RC, Breteler MM, Nyenhuis DL, Black SE, et al. National Institute of neurological disorders and stroke Canadian stroke network vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards. Stroke. 2006;37:2220-41.
18. Royal College of Physicians. National clinical guidelines for stroke clinical effectiveness and evaluation unit. London: Royal College of Physicians; 2012.
19. Lees R, Corbet S, Johnston C, Moffitt E, Shaw G, Quinn TJ. Test accuracy of short screening tests for diagnosis of delirium or cognitive impairment in an acute stroke unit setting. Stroke. 2013;44:3078-3.
20. Ferris S. Report of the working group on clinical global measures. Position paper from the International working group on harmonization of dementia drug guidelines. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1997;11 Suppl 3:8-18.
21. Demeyere N, Riddoch MJ, Slavkova ED, Bickerton WL, Humphreys GW. The Oxford Cognitive Screen (OCS): validation of a stroke-specific short cognitive screening tool. Psychol Assess. 2015;27:883-94.
22. Lees R, Selvarajah J, Fenton C, Pendlebury ST, Langhorne P, Stott DJ, Quinn TJ. Test accuracy of cognitive screening tests for diagnosis of dementia and multidomain cognitive impairment in stroke. Stroke. 2014;45:3008-18.
23. Pendlebury ST, Klaus SP, Thomson RJ, Mehta Z, Wharton RM, Rothwell PM, Oxford Vascular Study. Methodological factors in determining risk of dementia after transient ischemic attack and stroke: (III) applicability of cognitive tests. Stroke. 2015;46:3067-73.
24. Tang WK, Chan SSM, Chiu HFK, Wong KS, Kwok TCY, Mok V, et al. Can IQCODE detect poststroke dementia? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2003;18:706-10.
25. Harrison JK, Fearon P, Noel-Storr AH, McShane R, Stott DJ, Quinn TJ. IQCODE for diagnosis dementia in secondary care settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;3:CD010772.
26. Quinn TJ, Dawson J, Walters MR, Lees KR. Functional outcome measures in contemporary stroke trials. Int J Stroke. 2009;3:200-5.
27. Lees RA, Hendry Ba K, Broomfield N, Stott D, Larner AJ, Quinn TJ. Cognitive assessment in stroke: feasibility and test properties using differing approaches to scoring of incomplete items. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016. Ahead of print. doi: 10.1002/gps.4568.
28. Seshadri S, Wolf PA. Lifetime risk of stroke and dementia: current concepts, and estimates from the Framingham study. Lancet. 2007;3:1106-14.
29. Henon H, Pasquier F, Leys D. Poststroke dementia. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2006;22:61-70.
30. Pasquier F, Hénon H, Leys D. Risk factors and mechanisms of post-stroke dementia. Rev Neurol. 1999;155(9):749-53.
31. Pendlebury ST, Rothwell PM. Prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with pre-stroke and post-stroke dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8:1006-18.
32. Bornstein NM, Gur AY, Treves TA, Reider-Groswasser I, Aronovich BD, Klimovitzky SS, Varssano D, Korczyn AD. Do silent brain infarctions predict the development of dementia after first ischemic stroke? Stroke. 1996;27(5):904-5.
33. Grau-Olivares M, Arboix A. Mild cognitive impairment in stroke patients with ischemic cerebral small-vessel disease: a forerunner of vascular dementia? Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(8):1201-17.
34. Blanco-Rojas L, Arboix A, Canovas D, Grau-Olivares M, Oliva Morera JC, Parra O. Cognitive profile in patients with a first-ever lacunar infarct with and without silent lacunes: a comparative study. BMC Neurol. 2013;13:203.
35. Ben Assayag E, Korczyn AD, Giladi N, Goldbourt U, Berliner AS, Shenhar-Tsarfaty S, Kliper E, Hallevi H, Shopin L, Hendler T, Baashat DB, Aizenstein O, Soreq H, Katz N, Solomon Z, Mike A, Usher S, Hausdorff JM, Auriel E, Shapira I, Bornstein NM. Predictors for poststroke outcomes: the Tel Aviv brain acute stroke cohort (TABASCO) study protocol. Int J Stroke. 2012;7:341-7.
36. Wollenweber FA, Zietemann V, Rominger A, Opherk C, Bayer-Karpinska A, Gschwendtner A, Coloma Andrews L, Bürger K, Duering M, Dichgans M. The determinants of dementia after stroke (DEDEMAS) study: protocol and pilot data. Int J Stroke. 2014;9:387-92.
37. Pendlebury ST, Chen PJ, Welch SJ, Cuthbertson FC, Wharton RM, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM, Oxford Vascular Study. Methodological factors in determining risk of dementia after transient ischemic attack and stroke: (I) impact of baseline selection bias. Stroke. 2015;46:641-6.
38. Pendlebury ST, Chen PJ, Welch SJ, Cuthbertson FC, Wharton RM, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM, Oxford Vascular Study. Methodological factors in determining risk of dementia after transient ischemic attack and stroke: (II) effect of attrition on follow-up. Stroke. 2015;46:1494-500.
39. Levine DA, Galecki AT, Langa KM, Unverzagt FW, Kabeto MU, Giordani B, Wadley VG. Trajectory of cognitive decline after incident stroke. JAMA. 2015;314(1):41-51.
40. Bornstein NM, Aronovich B, Korczyn AD, Shavit S, Michaelson DM, Chapman J. Antibodies to brain antigens following stroke. Neurology. 2001;56(4):529-30.
41. Hsiung GY, Sadovnick AD, Feldman H. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 genotype as a risk factor for cognitive decline and dementia: data from the Canadian study of health and aging. CMAJ. 2004;171:863-7.
42. Jin YP, Ostbye T, Feightner JW, Di Legge S, Hachinski V. Joint effect of stroke and APOE4 on dementia risk: the Canadian study of health and aging. Neurology. 2008;70:9-16.
43. Kolsch H, Jessen F, Freymann N, et al. ACE I/D polymorphism is a risk factor of alzheimer's disease but not of vascular dementia. Neurosci Lett. 2005;377:37-9.
44. Mortimer JA, Snowdon DA, Markesbery WR. The effect of APOE-epsilon 4 on dementia is mediated by alzheimer neuropathology. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2009;23:152-7.
45. Qian L, Ding L, Cheng L, et al. Early biomarkers for post-stroke cognitive impairment. J Neurol. 2012;259:2111-8.
46. Rippon GA, Tang MX, Lee JH, Lantigua R, Medrano M, Mayeux R. Familial alzheimer disease in Latinos: interaction between APOE, stroke, and estrogen replacement. Neurology. 2006;66:35-40.
47. Treves TA, Bornstein NM, Chapman J, Klimovitzki S, Verchovsky R, Asherov A, Veshchev IO, Korczyn AD. APOE-epsilon 4 in patients with alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1996;10(4):189-91.
48. Bour AM, Rasquin SM, Baars L, et al. The effect of the APOE-epsilon 4 allele and ACE-I/D polymorphism on cognition during a two-year follow-up in first-ever stroke patients. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;29:534-42.
49. Baum L, Chen X, Cheung WS, et al. Polymorphisms and vascular cognitive impairment after ischemic stroke. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2007;20:93-9.
50. Arpa A, del Ser T, Goda G, Barba R, Bornstein B. Apolipoprotein E, angiotensin-converting enzyme and alpha-1-antichymotrypsin genotypes are not associated with post-stroke dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2003;210:77-82.
51. Slooter AJ, Tang MX, van Duijn CM, et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 and the risk of dementia with stroke: a population-based investigation. JAMA. 1997;277:818-21.
52. Chapman J, Wang N, Treves TA, Korczyn AD, Bornstein NM. ACE, MTHFR, factor V Leiden, and APOE polymorphisms in patients with vascular and alzheimer's dementia. Stroke. 1998;29(7):1401-4.
53. Schrijvers EM, Schurmann B, Koudstaal PJ, et al. Genome-wide association study of vascular dementia. Stroke. 2012;43:315-9.
54. Morris CM, Ballard CG, Allan L, et al. NOS3 gene rs1799983 polymorphism and incident dementia in elderly stroke survivors. Neurobiol Aging. 2011;32:554e1-e6.
55. Battistin L, Cagnin A. Vascular cognitive disorder. A biological and clinical overview. Neurochem Res. 2010;35:1933-8.
56. Adair JC, Charlie J, Dencoff JE, et al. Measurement of gelatinase B (MMP-9) in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with vascular dementia and alzheimer disease. Stroke. 2004;35:e159-62.
57. Candelario-Jalil E, Thompson J, Taheri S, et al. Matrix metalloproteinases are associated with increased blood-brain barrier opening in vascular cognitive impairment. Stroke. 2011;42:1345-50.
58. Wallin A, Ohrfelt A, Bjerke M. Characteristic clinical presentation and CSF biomarker pattern in cerebral small vessel disease. J Neurol Sci. 2012;322:192-6.
59. Hankey GJ, Ford AH, Yi Q, et al. Effect of B vitamins and lowering homocysteine on cognitive impairment in patients with previous stroke or transient ischemic attack: a prespecified secondary analysis of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2013;44:2232-9.
60. Jin R, Yang G, Li G. Inflammatory mechanisms in ischemic stroke: role of inflammatory cells. J Leukoc Biol. 2010;87(5):779-89.
61. Zhang L, Yang L. Anti-inflammatory effects of vinpocetine in atherosclerosis and ischemic stroke: a review of the literature. Molecules. 2014;20(1):335-47.
62. Rothenburg LS, Herrmann N, Swardfager W, et al. The relationship between inflammatory markers and post stroke cognitive impairment. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2010;23:199-205.
63. Narasimhalu K, Lee J, Leong YL, et al. Inflammatory markers and their association with post stroke cognitive decline. Int J Stroke. 2015;10:513-8.
64. Kliper E, Bashat DB, Bornstein NM, et al. Cognitive decline after stroke: relation to inflammatory biomarkers and hippocampal volume. Stroke. 2013;44:1433-5.
65. Dong H, Li J, Huang L, et al. Serum MicroRNA profiles serve as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis of alzheimer's disease. Dis Markers. 2015;2015:625659.
66. Mehrabian S, Raycheva M, Petrova N, Janyan A, Petrova M, Traykov L. Neuropsychological and neuroimaging markers in prediction of cognitive impairment after ischemic stroke: a prospective follow-up study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:2711-9.
67. Wattjes MP, Henneman WJ, van der Flier WM, et al. Diagnostic imaging of patients in a memory clinic: comparison of MR imaging and 64-detector row CT. Radiology. 2009;253:174-83.
68. Wahlund LO, Barkhof F, Fazekas F, et al. A new rating scale for age-related white matter changes applicable to MRI and CT. Stroke. 2001;32:1318-22.
69. Wardlaw JM, Smith EE, Biessels GJ, et al. Neuroimaging standards for research into small vessel disease and its contribution to ageing and neurodegeneration. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:822-38.
70. Grysiewicz R, Gorelick PB. Key neuroanatomical structures for post-stroke cognitive impairment. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2012;12(6):703-8.
71. Heiss WD, Kidwell CS. Imaging for prediction of functional outcome and assessment of recovery in ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2014;45(4):1195-201.
72. Duering M, Righart R, Csanadi E, Jouvent E, Hervé D, Chabriat H, Dichgans M. Incident subcortical infarcts induce focal thinning in connected cortical regions. Neurology. 2012;79(20):2025-8.
73. Grau-Olivares M, Arboix A, Junqué C, Arenaza-Urquijo EM, Rovira M, Bartrés-Faz D. Progressive gray matter atrophy in lacunar patients with vascular mild cognitive impairment. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2010;30(2):157-66.
74. Kliper E, Ben Assayag E, Tarrasch R, Artzi M, Korczyn AD, Shenhar-Tsarfaty S, Aizenstein O, Hallevi H, Mike A, Shopin L, Bornstein NM, Ben BD. Cognitive state following stroke: the predominant role of preexisting white matter lesions. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e105461.
75. Kooistra M, Geerlings MI, van der Graaf Y, et al. Vascular brain lesions, brain atrophy, and cognitive decline. The second manifestations of ARTerial disease - magnetic resonance (SMART-MR) study. Neurobiol Aging. 2014;35:35-41.
76. Kliper E, Ben Assayag E, Korczyn AD, Auriel E, Shopin L, Hallevi H, Shenhar-Tsarfaty S, Mike A, Artzi M, Klovatch I, Bornstein NM, Ben BD. Cognitive state following mild stroke: a matter of hippocampal mean diffusivity. Hippocampus. 2016;26(2):161-9. doi: 10.1002/hipo.22500.
77. Heiss W-D, Zimmermann-Meinzingen S. PET imaging in the differential diagnosis of vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2012;322:268-73.
78. Snowdon DA, Greiner LH, Mortimer JA, Riley KP, Greiner PA, Markesbery WR. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of alzheimer disease. JAMA. 1997;277:813-7.
79. Leys D, Henon H, Mackowiak-Cordoliani MA, Pasquier F. Poststroke dementia. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:752-9.
80. Cechetto DF, Hachinski V, Whitehead SN. Vascular risk factors and alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8:743-50.
81. Pendlebury ST. Dementia in patients hospitalized with stroke: rates, time course, and clinico-pathologic factors. Int J Stroke. 2012;7(7):570-81.
82. Douiri A, McKevitt C, Emmett ES, Rudd AG, Wolfe CD. Long-term effects of secondary prevention on cognitive function in stroke patients. Circulation. 2013;128(12):1341-8.
83. Woods B, Aguirre E, Spector AE, Orrell M. Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;2:CD005562.
84. Thiel A, Cechetto DF, Heiss WD, Hachinski V, Whitehead SN. Amyloid burden, neuroinflammation, and links to cognitive decline after ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2014;45:2825-9.
85. Arboix A, Blanco-Rojas L, Martí-Vilalta JL. Advancements in understanding the mechanisms of symptomatic lacunar ischemic stroke: translation of knowledge to prevention strategies. Expert Rev Neurother. 2014;14(3):261-76.
86. Zanchetti A, Liu L, Mancia G, Parati G, Grassi G, Stramba-Badiale M, et al. Blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol targets for prevention of recurrent strokes and cognitive decline in the hypertensive patient: design of the European society of hypertension-Chinese hypertension league stroke in hypertension optimal treatment randomized trial. J Hypertension. 2014;32(9):1888-97.
87. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6,105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet. 2001;358(9287):1033-41. Erratum in: Lancet. 2001;358(9292):1556. Lancet. 2002;359(9323):2120.
88. Diener HC, Sacco RL, Yusuf S, Cotton D, Ounpuu S, Lawton WA, et al. Effects of aspirin plus extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel and telmisartan on disability and cognitive function after recurrent stroke in patients with ischaemic stroke in the prevention regimen for effectively avoiding second strokes (PRoFESS) trial: a double-blind, active and placebo-controlled study. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(10):875-84.
89. Pearce LA, McClure LA, Anderson DC, Jacova C, Sharma M, Hart RG, et al. Effects of long-term blood pressure lowering and dual antiplatelet treatment on cognitive function in patients with recent lacunar stroke: a secondary analysis from the SPS3 randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(12):1177-85.
90. Ihle-Hansen H, Thommessen B, Fagerland MW, Øksengård AR, Wyller TB, Engedal K, Fure B. Blood pressure control to prevent decline in cognition after stroke. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2015;11:311-6. doi: 10.2147/VHRM.S82839.
91. Hornslien AG, Sandset EC, Bath PM, Wyller TB, Berge E. Effects of candesartan in acute stroke on cognitive function and quality of life: results from the Scandinavian candesartan acute stroke trial. Stroke. 2013;44(7):2022-4.
92. Manktelow BN, Potter JF. Interventions in the management of serum lipids for preventing stroke recurrence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;3:CD002091.
93. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, Sleight P, Peto R. Effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on stroke and other major vascular events in 20536 people with cerebrovascular disease or other high-risk conditions. Lancet. 2004;363(9411):757-67.
94. O'Brien EC, Greiner MA, Xian Y, Fonarow GC, Olson DM, Schwamm LH, et al. Clinical effectiveness of statin therapy after ischemic stroke: primary results from the statin therapeutic area of the patient-centered research into outcomes stroke patients prefer and effectiveness research (PROSPER) study. Circulation. 2015;132(15):1404-13.
95. Bath PM, Woodhouse L, Scutt P, Krishnan K, Wardlaw JM, Bereczki D, et al. Efficacy of nitric oxide, with or without continuing antihypertensive treatment, for management of high blood pressure in acute stroke (ENOS): a partial-factorial randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385(9968):617-28.
96. Kavirajan H, Schneider LS. Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(9):782-92.
97. Ballard C, Sauter M, Scheltens P, He Y, Barkhof F, van Straaten EC, et al. Efficacy, safety and tolerability of rivastigmine capsules in patients with probable vascular dementia: the VantagE study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008;24(9):2561-74.
98. Muresanu DF, Heiss WD, Hoemberg V, Bajenaru O, Popescu CD, Vester JC, et al. Cerebrolysin and recovery after stroke (CARS): a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter trial. Stroke. 2016;47(1):151-9.
99. Mead GE, Hsieh CF, Hackett M. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for stroke recovery. JAMA. 2013;310(10):1066-7.
100. Mead G, Hackett M, Lundstrom E, Murray V, Hankey G, Dennis M. The FOCUS, AFFINITY and EFFECTS trials studying the effect(s) of fluoxetine in patients with a recent stroke: a study protocol for three multicentre randomised controlled trials. Trials. 2015;16:369.
101. Alvarez-Sabin J, Roman GC. The role of citicoline in neuroprotection and neurorepair in ischemic stroke. Brain Sci. 2013;3(3):1395-414.
102. Wang X, Li J, Qian L, Zang XF, Zhang SY, Wang XY, Jin JL, Zhu XL, Zhang XB, Wang ZY, Xu Y. Icariin promotes histone acetylation and attenuates post-stroke cognitive impairment in the central cholinergic circuits of mice. Neuroscience. 2013;236:281-8. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.074.
103. Lennon O, Galvin R, Smith K, Doody C, Blake C. Lifestyle interventions for secondary disease prevention in stroke and transient ischaemic attack: a systematic review. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2014;21(8):1026-39.
104. Sun JH, Tan L, Yu JT. Post-stroke cognitive impairment: epidemiology, mechanisms and management. Ann Transl Med. 2014;2(8):80.
105. Ihle-Hansen H, Thommessen B, Fagerland MW, Oksengard AR, Wyller TB, Engedal K, et al. Multifactorial vascular risk factor intervention to prevent cognitive impairment after stroke and TIA: a 12-month randomized controlled trial. Int J Stroke. 2014;9(7):932-8.
106. Ihle-Hansen H, Thommessen B, Fagerland MW, Oksengard AR, Wyller TB, Engedal K, et al. Effect on anxiety and depression of a multifactorial risk factor intervention program after stroke and TIA: a randomized controlled trial. Aging Ment Health. 2014;18(5):540-6.
107. Matz K, Teuschl Y, Firlinger B, Dachenhausen A, Keindl M, Seyfang L, et al. Multidomain lifestyle interventions for the prevention of cognitive decline after ischemic stroke: randomized trial. Stroke. 2015;46(10):2874-80.
108. Cumming TB, Tyedin K, Churilov L, Morris ME, Bernhardt J. The effect of physical activity on cognitive function after stroke: a systematic review. Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24(4):557-67.
109. Stanek KM, Gunstad J, Spitznagel MB, Waechter D, Hughes JW, Luyster F, et al. Improvements in cognitive function following cardiac rehabilitation for older adults with cardiovascular disease. Int J Neurosci. 2011;121(2):86-93.
110. Marzolini S, Oh P, McIlroy W, Brooks D. The effects of an aerobic and resistance exercise training program on cognition following stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2013;27(5):392-402.
111. Moore SA, Hallsworth K, Jakovljevic DG, Blamire AM, He J, Ford GA, et al. Effects of community exercise therapy on metabolic, brain, physical, and cognitive function following stroke: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2015;29(7):623-35.
112. Boss HM, Van Schaik SM, Deijle IA, de Melker EC, van den Berg BT, Scherder EJ, et al. A randomised controlled trial of aerobic exercise after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke to prevent cognitive decline: the MoveIT study protocol. BMJ Open. 2014;4(12):e007065.
113. Cicerone KD, Langenbahn DM, Braden C, Malec JF, Kalmar K, Fraas M, et al. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011;92(4):519-30.
114. Nair RD, Lincoln NB. Cognitive rehabilitation for memory deficits following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;3:CD002293.
115. Chung CS, Pollock A, Campbell T, Durward BR, Hagen S. Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in adults with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;4:CD008391.
116. Cha YJ, Kim H. Effect of computer-based cognitive rehabilitation (CBCR) for people with stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. NeuroRehabilitation. 2013;32(2):359-68.
117. Nitsche MA, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol. 2000;527(Pt 3):633-9.
118. Siebner HR, Rothwell J. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: new insights into representational cortical plasticity. Exp Brain Res. 2003;148:1-16.
119. Chang WH, Bang OY, Shin YI, Lee A, Pascual-Leone A, Kim YH. BDNF polymorphism and differential rTMS effects on motor recovery of stroke patients. Brain Stimul. 2014;7:553-8.
120. Korczyn AD, Brainin M, Guekht A. Neuroprotection in ischemic stroke: what does the future hold? Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15(3):227-9.
121. Elmlinger MW, Kriebel M, Ziegler D. Neuroprotective and anti-oxidative effects of the hemodialysate actovegin on primary rat neurons in vitro. Neuromolecular Med. 2011;13(4):266-74.
122. Mikhaìlova NM, Selezneva ND, Kalyn IaB, Roshchina IF, Gavrilova SI. [Efficacy of actovegin in the treatment of elderly patients with vascular mild cognitive impairment.] Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2013;113(7 Pt 2):69-76. [In Russian].
123. Guekht A, Skoog I, Korczyn AD, Zakharov V, Eeg M, Vigonius U. A randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of actovegin in patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment: ARTEMIDA study design. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2013;3(1):459-67.
124. Skoog I, Korczyn AD, Guekht A. Neuroprotection in vascular dementia: a future path. J Neurol Sci. 2012;322(1-2):232-6.