Scientific frontiers in the management of coral reefs

Frontiers in Marine Science

Volumn 2, Issue JUL, 2015, Pages

  Aswani, Shankar ^a   Mumby, Peter J ^b   Baker, Andrew C ^c   Christie, Patrick ^d   McCook, Laurence J ^e   Steneck, Robert S ^f   Richmond, Robert H ^g  

^a RHODES UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^e GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AUTHORITY   (Australia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MAINE   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

Coral reefs; Management; Natural science; Scientific frontiers; Social science

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008675899     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22967745     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00050     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Abernethy, K. E., Aswani, S., Albert, S., Hoddy, E. T., Vaccaro, I., Beare, D. J., et al. (in press). Differential perceptions of environmental change among coastal communities of western Solomon Islands. Ecol. Soc
2. Acheson, J. M. (1988). The Lobster Gangs of Maine. Durham, NH: University Press of New England
3. Adam, T. C., Burkepile, D. E., Ruttenberg, B. I., and Paddack, M. J. (2015). Herbivory and the resilience of Caribbean coral reefs: knowledge gaps and implications for management. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 520, 1-20. doi: 10.3354/meps11170
4. Alvarez-Filip, L., Dulvy, N. K., Gill, J. A., Cote, I. M., and Watkinson, A. R. (2009). Flattening of Caribbean coral reefs: region-wide declines in architectural complexity. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 276, 3019-3025. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0339
5. Andrefouet, S., Mumby, P. J., McField, M., Hu, C., and Muller-Karger, F. E. (2002). Revisiting coral reef connectivity. Coral Reefs 21, 43-48. doi: 10.1007/s00338-001-0199-0
6. Anthony, K. R. N., Diaz-Pulido, G., Verlinden, N., Tilbrook, B., and Andersson, A. J. (2013). Benthic buffers and boosters of ocean acidification on coral reefs. Biogeoscie. Disc. 10, 1-35. doi: 10.5194/bgd-10-1831-2013
7. Arnold, S. N., Steneck, R. S., and Mumby, P. J. (2010). Running the gauntlet: inhibitory effects of algal turfs on the process of coral recruitment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 414, 91-105 doi: 10.3354/meps08724
8. Aswani, S., Christie, P., Muthiga, N., Mahon, R., Primavera, J. H., Cramer, L. A., et al. (2012). The way forward with ecosystem-based management in tropical contexts: reconciling with existing management systems. Mar. Pol. 36, 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2011.02.014
9. Aswani, S., and Ruddle, K. (2013). The design of realistic hybrid marine resource management programs in Oceania. Pac. Sci. 67, 461-476. doi: 10.2984/67.3.11
10. Atad, A., Zvuloni, A., Loya, Y., and Rosenberg, E. (2012). Phage therapy of the white plague-like disease of Favia favus in the Red Sea. Coarl Reefs 31, 665-670. doi: 10.1007/s00338-012-0900-5
11. Ateweberhan, M., McClanahan, T. R., Graham, N. A. J., and Sheppard, C. R. C. (2011). Episodic heterogeneous decline and recovery of coral cover in the Indian Ocean. Coral Reefs 30, 739-752. doi: 10.1007/s00338-011-0775-x
12. Baker, A. C. (2003). Flexibility and specificity in coral-algal symbiosis: diversity, ecology and biogeography of Symbiodinium. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 34, 661-689. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132417
13. Baker, A. C., Glynn, P. W., and Riegl, B. (2008). Climate change and coral reef bleaching: an ecological assessment of the long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlooks. Estua. Coa. Shelf Sci. 80, 435-471. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003
14. Ball, I. R., Possingham, H. P., and Watts, M. (2009). "Marxan and relatives: Software for spatial conservation prioritisation," in Spatial Conservation Prioritisation: Quantitative Methods and Computational Tools, eds A. Moilanen, K. A. Wilson, and H. P. Possingham (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 185-195
15. Ban, N. C., Adams, V. M., Almany, G. R., Ban, S., Cinner, J. E., McCook, L. J., et al. (2011). Designing, implementing and managing marine protected areas: emerging trends and opportunities for coral reefs nations. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 408, 21-31. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2011.07.023
16. Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C., and Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Mono. 81, 169-193. doi: 10.1890/10-1510.1
17. Barshis, D. J., Stillman, J. H., Gates, R. D., Toonen, R. J., Smith, L. W., and Birkelands, C. (2010). Protein expression and genetic structure of the coral Porites lobata in an environmentally extreme Samoan back reef: does host genotype limit phenotypic plasticity? Mol. Ecol. 19, 1705-1720. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04574.x
18. Baums, I. B. (2008). A restoration genetics guide for coral reef conservation. Mol. Ecol. 17, 2796-2811. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03787.x
19. Beger, M., Linke, S., Watts, M., Game, E. T., Treml, E., Ball, I., et al. (2010). Incorporating asymmetric connectivity into spatial decision making for conservation. Cons. Lett. 3, 359-368. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00123.x
20. Bellwood, D. R., and Choat, J. H. (1990). A functional-analysis of the grazing in parrotfishes (Family Scaridae): the ecological implications. Environ. Biol. Fish. 28, 189-214. doi: 10.1007/BF00751035
21. Berkelmans, R., and van Oppen, M. J. H. (2006). The role of zooxanthellae in the thermal tolerance of corals: a 'nugget of hope' for coral reefs in an era of climate change. Proc. Biol. Sci. 273, 2305-2312. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2006.3567
22. Birrell, C. L., McCook, L. J., Willis, B. L., and Diaz-Pulido, G. A. (2008). Effects of benthic algae on the replenishment of corals and the implications for the resilience of coral reefs. Oceano. Mar. Bio. Ann. Rev. 46, 25-64. doi: 10.1201/9781420065756.ch2
23. Blythe, J. L. (2014). Resilience and social thresholds in small-scale fishing communities Sustain. Sust. Sci. 10, 157-165. doi: 10.1007/s11625-014-0253-9
24. Brodie, J. E., Kroon, F. J., Schaffelke, B., Wolanski, E., Lewis, S. E., Devlin, M. J., et al. (2012). Terrestrial pollutant runoff to the Great Barrier Reef: an update of issues, priorities and management responses. Mar. Poll. Bull 65, 81-100. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.12.012
25. Bruno, J. F., and Selig, E. R. (2007). Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. PLoS ONE 8:e711. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000711
26. Bundy, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Jentoft, S., and Mahon, R. (2008). If science is not the answer, what is? An alternative governance model for the world's fisheries. Front. Ecol. Environ. 6, 152-155. doi: 10.1890/060112
27. Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., and Perry, A. (2011). Reefs at Risk Revisited. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute
28. Bythell, J., and Sheppard, C. (1993). Mass mortality of Caribbean shallow corals. Mar. Poll. Bull. 26, 296-297
29. Caley, M. J., Carr, M. H., Hixon, M. A., Hughes, T. P., Jones, G. P., and Menge, B. A. (1996). Recruitment and the local dynamics of open marine populations. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 27, 477-500. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.477
30. Cantin, N. E., van Oppen, M. J. H., Willis, B. L., Mieog, J. C., and Negri, A. P. (2009). Juvenile corals can acquire more carbon from high-performance algal symbionts. Coral Reefs 28, 405-e414. doi: 10.1007/s00338-009-0478-8
31. Christie, P. (2011). Creating space for interdisciplinary marine and coastal research: five dilemmas and suggested resolutions. Environ. Cons. 38, 172-186. doi: 10.1017/S0376892911000129
32. Christie, P., Pollnac, R. B., Fluharty, D. L., Hixon, M. A., Lowry, G. K., Mahon, R., et al. (2009b). Tropical marine EBM feasibility: a synthesis of case studies and comparative analyses. Coast. Manag. 37, 374-385. doi: 10.1080/08920750902937994
33. Christie, P., Pollnac, R. B., Oracion, E. G., Sabonsolin, A., Diaz, R., and Pietri, D. (2009a). Back to basics: an empirical study demonstrating the importance of local-level dynamics for the success of tropical marine ecosystem-based management. Coast Manag. 37, 349-373. doi: 10.1080/08920750902851740
34. Cinner, J. E. (2014). Coral reef livelihoods. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sust. 7, 65-71. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.025
35. Cinner, J. E., Huchery, C., Darling, E. S., Humphries, A. T., Graham, N. A. J., Hicks, C. C., et al. (2013). Evaluating social and ecological vulnerability of coral Reef fisheries to climate change. PLoS ONE 8:e74321. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074321
36. Cinner, J. E., McClanahan, T. R., Graham, N. A. J., Daw, T. M., Maina, J., Stead, S. M., et al. (2012). Vulnerability of coastal communities to key impacts of climate change on coral reef fisheries. Glob. Environ. Chan. 22, 12-20. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.09.018
37. Clark, J. R. (1995). Coastal Zone Management Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, Inc
38. Cornu, E. L., Kittinger, J. N., Koehn, J. Z., Finkbeiner, E. M., and Crowder, L. B. (2014). Current practice and future prospects for social data in coastal and ocean planning. Cons. Biol. 28, 902-911. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12310
39. Correa, A. M. S., and Baker, A. C. (2009). Understanding diversity in coral-algal symbiosis: a cluster-based approach to interpreting fine-scale genetic variation in the genus Symbiodinium. Coral Reefs 28, 81-93. doi: 10.1007/s00338-008-0456-6
40. Crémieux, L., Bischoff, A., Müller-Schärer, H., and Steinger, T. (2010). Gene flow from foreign provenances into local plant populations: fitness consequences and implications for biodiversity restoration. Am. J. Bot. 97, 94-100. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0900103
41. Daily, G. C., Polasky, S., Goldstein, J., Kareiva, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Pejchar, L., et al. (2009). Ecosystem services in decision making: time to deliver. Front. Ecol. Environ. 7, 21-28. doi: 10.1890/080025
42. D'Angelo, C., Hume, B. C. C., Burt, J., Smith, E. G., Achterberg, E. P., and Wiedenmann, J. (2015). Local adaptation constrains the distribution potential of heat-tolerant Symbiodinium from the Persian/Arabian Gulf. ISME J. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2015.80. [Epub ahead of print]
43. Daw, T. M., Coulthardc, S., Cheungd, W. W. L., Brown, K., Abunge, C., Galafassi, D., et al. (2015). Evaluating taboo trade-offs in ecosystems services and human well-being. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112, 6949-6954. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1414900112
44. De'ath, G., Fabricius, K. E., Sweatman, H., and Puotinen, M. (2012). The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 17995-17999. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1208909109
45. Doherty, P. J., Dufour, V., Galzin, R., Hixon, M., Meekan, M. G., and Planes, S. (2004). High mortality during settlement as a population bottleneck for a tropical surgeonfish. Ecology 85, 2422-2428. doi: 10.1890/04-0366
46. Downs, C. A., Ostrander, G. K., Rougee, L., Rongo, T., Knutson, S., Williams, D. E., et al. (2012). The use of cellular diagnostics for identifying sub-lethal stress in reef corals. Ecotoxicology 21, 768-782. doi: 10.1007/s10646-011-0837-4
47. Downs, C. A., Woodley, C. M., Richmond, R. H., and Lanning, L. L. and, Owen, R. (2005). Shifting the paradigm for coral-reef 'health' assessment. Mar. Poll. Bull. 51, 486-494. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.06.028
48. Dumas, P., Jimenez, H., Leopold, M., Petro, G., and Jimmy, R. (2010). Effectiveness of village-based marine reserves on reef invertebrates in Emau, Vanuatu. Environ. Cons. 37, 364-372. doi: 10.1017/S0376892910000536
49. Edgar, G. J., Stuart-Smith, R. D., Willis, T. J., Kininmonth, S., Baker, S. C., Banks, S., et al. (2014). Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature 506, 216-220. doi: 10.1038/nature13022
50. Edmunds, P. J., and Carpenter, R. C. (2001). Recovery of Diadema antillarum reduces macroalgal cover and increases abundance of juvenile corals on a Caribbean reef. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 5067-5071. doi: 10.1073/pnas.071524598
51. Fenner, D. (2012). Challenges for managing fisheries on diverse coral reefs. Diversity 4 105-160. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.CH.2004.PAPS.1.en
52. Finkbeiner, E., and Basurto, X. (2015). Re-defining co-management to facilitate small-scale fisheries reform: an illustration from Northwest Mexico. Mar. Pol. 51, 433-441. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2014.10.010
53. Fitt, W. K., Gates, R. D., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Bythell, J. C., Jatkard, A., Grottoli, A. G., et al. (2009). Response of two species of Indo-Pacific corals, Porites cylindrica and Stylophora pistillata, to short-term thermal stress: the host does matter in determining the tolerance of corals to bleaching. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 373, 102-110. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2009.03.011
54. Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P., and Norberg, J. (2005). Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Ann. Rev. Environ. Res. 30, 441-473. doi: 10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511
55. Foster, N. L., Paris, C. B., Kool, J. T., Baums, I. B., Stevens, J. R., Sanchez, J. A., et al. (2012). Connectivity of Caribbean coral populations: complementary insights from empirical and modelled gene flow. Mol. Ecol. 21, 1143-1157. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05455.x
56. Galindo, H. M., Olson, D. B., and Palumbi, S. R. (2006). Seascape genetics: a coupled oceanographic-genetic model predicts population structure of Caribbean corals. Curr. Biol. 16, 1622-1626. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.052
57. Game, E. T., McDonald-Madden, E., Puotinen, M. L., and Possingham, H. P. (2008). Should we protect the strong or the weak? Risk, resilience, and the selection of marine protected areas. Cons. Biol. 22, 1619-1629. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01037.x
58. Gardner, T. A., Cote, I. M., Gill, J. A., Grant, A., and Watkinson, A. R. (2003). Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science 301, 958-960. doi: 10.1126/science.1086050
59. Gledhill, D. K., Wanninkhof, R., Millero, F. J., and Eakin, C. M. (2008). Ocean acidification of the Greater Caribbean Region 1996-2006. J. Geophys. Res. 113:C10031. doi: 10.1029/2007jc004629
60. Golbuu, Y., Wolanski, E., Idechong, J. W., Victor, S., Isechal, A. L., Oldiais, N. W., et al. (2012). Predicting coral recruitment in a complex reef archipelago, Palau. PLoS ONE 7:e50998. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050998
61. Graham, N. A. J., Bellwood, D. R., Cinner, J. E., Hughes, T. P., Norström, A. V., and Nyström, M. (2013). Managing resilience to reverse phase shifts in coral reefs. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11, 541-548. doi: 10.1890/120305
62. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2009). Great Barrier Reef Region Strategic Assessment, Townsville, QLD: Program Report
63. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2013). Great Barrier Reef Region Strategic Assessment: Program Report. Draft for Public Comment. Townsville, QLD: GBRMPA. Available online at: http://ptedocs.gbrmpa.gov.au/ptRefWorks/2011-20/2013/GBRMPA_2013_GBRRegion-StrategicAssessmentDraftProgramReport.pdf
64. Great Barrier Reef Report Card 2012 2013. (2014). Reef Water Quality Protection Plan. Available online at: http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/measuring-success/report-cards/assets/report-card-2012-2013.pdf
65. Green, A. L., Fernandes, L., Almany, G., Abesamis, R., McLeod, E., Aliño, P. M., et al. (2014). Designing marine reserves for fisheries management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change adaptation. Coast. Manag. 42, 143-159. doi: 10.1080/08920753.2014.877763
66. Griffith, B., Scott, J. M., Carpenter, J. W., and Reed, C. (1989). Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245, 477-480. doi: 10.1126/science.245.4917.477
67. Gurney, G. G., Cinner, J. E., Ban, N. C., Pressey, R. L., Pollnac, R., Campbell, S. J., et al. (2014). Poverty and protected areas: an evaluation of a marine integrated conservation and development project in Indonesia. Glob. Environ. Change 26, 98-107. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.003
68. Harrington, L., Fabricius, K., De'Ath, G., and Negri, A. (2004). Recognition and selection of settlement substrata determine post-settlement survival in corals. Ecology 85, 3428-3437. doi: 10.1890/04-0298
69. Hicks, C. C., and Cinner, J. E. (2014). Social, institutional, and knowledge mechanisms mediate diverse ecosystem service benefits from coral reefs. PNAS 111, 17791-17796. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1413473111
70. Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Mar. Fresh. Res. 50, 839-866. doi: 10.1071/MF99078
71. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hughes, L., McIntyre, S., Lindenmayer, D. B., Parmesan, C., Possingham, H. P., et al. (2008). Assisted colonization and rapid climate change. Science 321, 345-346. doi: 10.1126/science.1157897
72. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J., Steneck, R. S., Greenfield, P., Gomez, E., et al. (2007). Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318, 1737-1742. doi: 10.1126/science.1152509
73. Howells, E. J., Beltran, V. H., Larsen, N. W., Bay, L. K., Willis, B. L., and van Oppen, M. J. H. (2012). Coral thermal tolerance shaped by local adaptation of photosymbionts. Nat. Clim. Change 2, 116-120. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1330
74. Hueerkamp, C., Glynn, P. W., D'Croz, L., Maté, J. L., and Colley, S. B. (2001). Bleaching and recovery of five eastern Pacific corals in an El Nino-related temperature experiment. Bull. Mar Sci. 69, 215-236
75. Hughes, T. P., and Connell, J. H. (1999). Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnol. Oceanogr. 44, 932-940. doi: 10.4319/lo.1999.44.3_part_2.0932
76. Hughes, T. P., Rodrigues, M. J., Bellwood, D. R., Ceccarelli, D., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., McCook, L. J., et al. (2007). Phase shifts, herbivory, and the resilience of coral reefs to climate change. Curr. Biol. 17, 360-365. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.049
77. Jones, A. M., and Berkelmans, R. (2010). Potential costs of acclimatization to a warmer climate: growth of a reef coral with heat tolerant vs. sensitive symbiont types. PLoS ONE 5:e10437. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010437
78. Jones, A. M., and Berkelmans, R. (2011). Tradeoffs to thermal acclimation: energetics and reproduction of a reef coral with heat tolerant Symbiodinium type D. J. Mar. Biol. 2011, 885-890. doi: 10.1155/2011/185890
79. Jones, G. P., Almany, G. R., Russ, G. R., Sale, P. F., Steneck, R. S., van Oppen, M. J. H., et al. (2009). Larval retention and connectivity among populations of corals and reef fishes: history, advances and challenges. Coral Reefs 28, 307-325. doi: 10.1007/s00338-009-0469-9
80. Juda, L. (1999). Considerations in the development of a functional approach to the governance of large marine ecosystems. Ocean Dev. Int. Law. 30, 89-125. doi: 10.1080/009083299276203
81. Kennedy, E. V., Perry, C. T., Halloran, P. R., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Schonberg, C. H., Wisshak, M., et al. (2013). Avoiding coral reef functional collapse requires local and global action. Curr. Biol. 23, 912-918. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.020
82. Kittinger, J. N., Finkbeiner, E. M., Ban, N. C., Broad, K., Carr, M. H., Cinner, J. E., et al. (2013). Emerging frontiers in social-ecological systems research for sustainability of small-scale fisheries. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sust. 5, 352-357. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2013.06.008
83. Kramer, P. A., Kramer, P. R., and Ginsburg, R. N. (2003). Assessment of the andros island reef system, bahamas (part 1: stony corals and algae). Atoll. Res. Bull. 496, 77-100. doi: 10.5479/si.00775630.496-5.76
84. Lirman, D. (2001). Competition between macroalgae and corals: effects of herbivore exclusion and increased algal biomass on coral survivorship and growth. Coral Reefs 19, 392-399. doi: 10.1007/s003380000125
85. Lirman, D., Thyberg, T., Herlan, J., Hill, C., Young-Lahiff, C., Schopmeyer, S., et al. (2010). Propagation of the threatened staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis: methods to minimize the impacts of fragment collection and maximize production. Coral Reefs 29, 729-735. doi: 10.1007/s00338-010-0621-6
86. Little, A. F., van Oppen, M. J. H., and Willis, B. L. (2004). Flexibility in algal endosymbioses shapes growth in reef corals. Science 304, 1492-1494. doi: 10.1126/science.1095733
87. MacNeil, M. A., Graham, N. A. J., Cinner, J. E., Wilson, S. K., Williams, I. D., Maina, J., et al. (2015). Recovery potential of the world's coral reef fishes. Nature 520, 341-344. doi: 10.1038/nature14358
88. Margoluis, R. A., and Salafsky, N. (1998). Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring Conservation and Development Projects. Washington, DC: Island Press
89. Marshall, P. A., and Baird, A. H. (2000). Bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef: differential susceptibilities among taxa. Coral Reefs 19, 155-163. doi: 10.1007/s003380000086
90. Marshall, P. A., and Schuttenberg, H. Z. (2006). A Reef Manager's Guide to Coral Bleaching. Townsville, QLD: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
91. McClanahan, T. R., Ateweberhan, M., Muhando, C. A., Maina, J., and Mohammed, M. S. (2007). Effects of climate and seawater temperature variation on coral bleaching and mortality. Ecol. Monogr. 77, 503-525 doi: 10.1890/06-1182.1
92. McClanahan, T. R., and Kurtis, J. D. (1991). Population regulation of the rock-boring sea urchin Echinometra mathaei (de Blainville). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 147, 121-146. doi: 10.1016/0022-0981(91)90041-T
93. McCook, L. J. (1999). Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18, 357-367. doi: 10.1007/s003380050213
94. McCook, L. J., Almany, G. R., Berumen, M. L., Day, J. C., Green, A. L., Jones, G. P., et al. (2009). Management under uncertainty: guidelines for incorporating connectivity into the protection of coral reefs. Coral Reefs 28, 353-366. doi: 10.1007/s00338-008-0463-7
95. McCook, L. J., Ayling, T., Cappo, M., Choat, J. H., Evans, R. D., De Freitas, D. M., et al. (2010). Adaptive management of the Great Barrier Reef: a globally significant demonstration of the benefits of networks of marine reserves. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 18278-18285 doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909335107
96. McCook, L. J., Folke, C., Hughes, T., Nyström, M., Obura, D., and Salm, R. (2007). Ecological Resilience, Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef, in Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef: A vulnerability assessment. Townsville, QLD: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
97. McCook, L. J., Jompa, J., and Diaz-Pulido, G. (2001). Competition between corals and algae on coral reefs: a review of evidence and mechanisms. Coral Reefs 19, 400-417. doi: 10.1007/s003380000129
98. McLeod, E., Anthony, K. R. N., Andersson, A., Beeden, R., Golbuu, Y., Kleypas, J., et al. (2013). Preparing to manage coral reefs for ocean acidification: lessons from coral bleaching. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11, 20-27. doi: 10.1890/110240
99. McManus, J. W. (1997). Tropical marine fisheries and the future of coral reefs: a brief review with emphasis on Southeast Asia. Coral Reefs 16, S121-S127. doi: 10.1007/s003380050248
100. McMillen, H. L., Ticktin, T., Friedlander, A., Jupiter, S. D., Thaman, R., Campbell, J., et al. (2014). Small islands, valuable insights: systems of customary resource use and resilience to climate change in the Pacific. Ecol. Soc. 19:44. doi: 10.5751/ES-06937-190444
101. Moon, K., and Blackman, D. (2014). A guide to understanding social science research for natural scientists. Cons. Biol. 28, 1167-1177. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12326
102. Mora, C., Aburto-Oropeza, O., Ayala, A., Ayotte, P. M., Banks, S., et al. (2011). Global human footprint on the linkage between diversity and ecosystem functioning in reef fishes. PLoS Biol. 9:e1000606. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000606
103. Mumby, P. J., Elliott, I. A., Eakin, C. M., Skirving, W., Paris, C. B., Edwards, H. J., et al. (2011). Reserve design for uncertain responses of coral reefs to climate change. Ecol. Lett. 14, 132-140. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01562.x
104. Mumby, P. J., and Harborne, A. R. (2010). Marine reserves enhance the recovery of corals on Caribbean reefs. PLoS ONE 5:e8657. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008657
105. Mumby, P. J., Steneck, R. S., Edwards, A. J., Ferrari, R., Coleman, R., Harborne, A. R., et al. (2012). Fishing down a Caribbean food web relaxes trophic cascades. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 445, 13-24. doi: 10.3354/meps09450
106. Nakai, T., and Park, S. C. (2002). Bacteriophage therapy of infectious diseases in aquaculture. Res. Microbiol. 153, 13-18. doi: 10.1016/S0923-2508(01)01280-3
107. Newton, K., Cote, I. M., Pilling, G. M., Jennings, S., and Dulvy, N. K. (2007). Current and future sustainability of island coral reef fisheries. Curr. Biol. 17, 655-658. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.054
108. Olds, A., Connolly, R. M., Pitti, K. A., Maxwell, P. S., Aswani, S., and Albert, S. (2014). Incorporating seascape species and connectivity to improve marine conservation outcomes. Cons. Biol. 28, 982-991. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12242
109. Ortiz, J. C., Gonzalez-Rivero, M., and Mumby, P. J. (2013). Can a thermally tolerant symbiont improve the future of Caribbean coral reefs? Glob. Change Biol. 19, 273-281. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12027
110. Ostrom, E. (2007). A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 15181-15187. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0702288104
111. Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science 325, 419-422. doi: 10.1126/science.1172133
112. Perry, C. T., Taylor, K. G., and Machent, P. G. (2006). Temporal shifts in reef lagoon sediment composition, Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Estu. Coas. Shelf Sci. 67, 133-144. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2005.11.031
113. Pollnac, R., Christie, P., Cinner, J. E., Dalton, T., Daw, T. M., Forrester, G. E., et al. (2010). Marine reserves as linked social-ecological systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 18262-18265. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0908266107
114. Pomeroy, R. S., Parks, J. E., and Watson, L. M. (2004). How's Your MPA Doing? A Guidebook for Natural and Social Indicators for Evaluating Marine Protected Area Management Effectiveness. Gland; Cambridge: IUCN
115. Rasher, D. B., and Hay, M. E. (2010). Chemically rich seaweeds poison corals when not controlled by herbivores. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 9683-9688. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0912095107
116. Reaka-Kulda, M. L. (1997). "The global biodiversity of coral reefs: a comparison with rainforests," in Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting our Natural Resources, eds M. L. Reaka-Kulda, D. E. Wilson, and O. E. Wilson (Washington, DC: Joseph Henry/National Academy Press), 83-108
117. Renken, H., and Mumby, P. J. (2009). Modelling the dynamics of coral reef macroalgae using a Bayesian belief network approach. Ecol. Model. 200, 1305-1314. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.02.022
118. Reshef, L., Koren, O., Loya, Y., Zilber-Rosenberg, I., and Rosenberg, E. (2006). The coral probiotic hypothesis. Environ. Microbiol. 8, 2068-2073. doi: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01148.x
119. Richmond, R. H. (1993). Coral reefs: present problems and future concerns resulting from anthropogenic disturbance. Coral Reefs 33, 524-536. doi: 10.1093/icb/33.6.524
120. Richmond, R. H., Rongo, T., Golbuu, Y., Victor, S., Idechong, N., Davis, G., et al. (2007). Watersheds and coral reefs: conservation science, policy, and implementation. Bioscience 57, 598-607. doi: 10.1641/B570710
121. Rinkevich, B. (2014). Rebuilding coral reefs: does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs? Curr. Opin. Env. Sust. 7, 28-36. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.018
122. Rougee, L. R. A., Richmond, R. H., and Collier, A. C. (2014). Natural variations in xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes: developing tools for coral monitoring. Coral Reefs 33, 523-535. doi: 10.1007/s00338-014-1136-3
123. Ruddle, K. (1994). External forces and change in traditional community-based fishery management systems in the Asia-Pacific region. Mar. Anthropol. Stud. 6, 1-37
124. Sale, P. F., Agardy, T., Ainsworth, C. H., Feist, B. E., Bell, J. D., Christie, P., et al. (2014). Transforming management of tropical coastal seas to cope with challenges of the 21st century. Mar. Poll. Bull. 85, 8-23. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.005
125. Sale, P. F., Cowen, R. K., Danilowicz, B. S., Jones, G. P., Kritzer, J. P., Lindeman, K. C., et al. (2005). Critical science gaps impede use of no-take fishery reserves. Tren. Ecol. Evol. 20, 74-80. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2004.11.007
126. Satz, D., Gould, R. K., Chan, K. M., Guerry, A., Norton, B., Satterfield, T., et al. (2013). The challenges of incorporating cultural ecosystem services into environmental assessment. Ambio 42, 675-684. doi: 10.1007/s13280-013-0386-6
127. Sheppard, C., Dixon, D. J., Gourlay, M., Sheppard, A., and Payet, R. (2005). Coral mortality increases wave energy reaching shores protected by reef flats: examples from the Seychelles. Estu. Coas. Shelf Sci. 64, 223-234. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2005.02.016
128. Silverstein, R. N., Correa, A. M. S., and Baker, A. C. (2012). Specificity is rarely absolute in coral-algal symbiosis: implications for coral response to climate change. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 279, 2609-2618. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2012.0055
129. Smith, E. A. (1991). Inujjuamiut Foraging Strategies: Evolutionary Ecology of an Arctic Hunting Economy. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter
130. Steneck, R. S. (1997). Crustose corallines, other algal functional groups, herbivores and sediments: complex interactions along reef productivity gradients. Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1, 695-700
131. The World Bank. (2006). Where is the Wealth of Nations? Washington, DC: The World Bank
132. van Oppen, M. J. H., Oliver, J. K., Putnam, H. M., and Gates, R. D. (2015). Building coral reef resilience through assisted evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112, 2307-2313. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1422301112
133. van Oppen, M. J. H., Souter, P., Howells, E. J., Heyward, A. J., and Berkelmans, R. (2011). Novel genetic diversity through somatic mutations: fuel for adaptation of reef corals? Diversity 3, 405-423. doi: 10.3390/d3030405
134. van Putten, I., Lalancette, A., Bayliss, P., Dennis, D., Hutton, T., Norman-López, A., et al. (2013). A Bayesian model of factors influencing indigenous participation in the Torres Strait tropical rocklobster fishery. Mar Pol. 37, 96-105. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2012.04.001
135. van Woesik, R., Scott, W. J., and Aronson, R. B. (2014). Lost opportunities: coral recruitment does not translate to reef recovery in the Florida Keys. Mar. Poll. Bull. 88, 110-117. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.017
136. Vollmer, S. V., and Kline, D. K. (2008). Natural disease resistance in threatened Staghorn Corals. PLoS ONE 3:e3718. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003718
137. Williams, G. J., Aeby, G. S., and Davy, S. K. (2008). Coral disease at Palmyra Atoll, a remote reef system in the Central Pacific. Coral Reefs 27, 207-207. doi: 10.1007/s00338-007-0314-y
138. Williams, I. D., and Polunin, N. V. C. (2000). Large-scale associations between macroalgal cover and grazer biomass on mid-depth reefs in the Caribbean. Coral Reefs 19, 358-366. doi: 10.1007/s003380000121
139. Wolanski, E., Richmond, R. H., and McCook, L. (2004). A model of the effects of land-based human activities on the health of coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef and in Fouha Bay, Guam, Micronesia. J. Mar. Syst. 46, 133-144. doi: 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2003.11.018
140. Wolanski, E., Richmond, R. H., McCook, L., and Sweatman, H. (2003). Mud, marine snow and coral reefs. Am. Sci. 91, 44-51. doi: 10.1511/2003.1.44
141. Wooldridge, S., and Done, T. J. (2004). Learning to predict large-scale coral bleaching from past events: a Bayesian approach using remotely sensed data, in-situ data, and environmental proxies. Coral Reefs 23, 96-108. doi: 10.1007/s00338-003-0361-y