Neural Interface Devices: Spinal Cord Stimulation Technology

Proceedings of the IEEE

Volumn 96, Issue 7, 2008, Pages 1108-1119

  North, Richard B ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Electroanalgesia; ischemic pain; neuropathic pain; spinal cord stimulation

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008049442     PISSN: 00189219     EISSN: 15582256     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2008.922558     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. D. Fishlock, “Doctor volts [electrotherapy],” Inst. Elect. Eng. Rev., vol. 47, pp. 23–28, May 2001.
2. P. Melzack and P. D. Wall, “Pain mechanisms: A new theory,” Science, vol. 150, no. 3699, pp. 971–978, Nov. 1965.
3. P. D. Wall and W. H. Sweet, “Temporary abolition of pain in man,” Science, vol. 155, no. 3758, pp. 108–109, Jan. 1965.
4. C. Shealy, J. Mortimer, and J. Reswick, “Electrical inhibition of pain by stimulation of the dorsal columns: A preliminary report,”
5. Anesth. Analg., vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 489–491, Jul.—Aug. 1967.
6. J. Torresani, M. Arnoux, A. Jobin, M. Giraud, E. Henry, and A. Jouve, “Cardiac slowing by electric stimulation,” (in French), Arch. Mal. Coeur Vaiss., vol. 58, no. 12, pp. 1669–1679, Dec. 1965.
7. J. Torresani, J. R. Monties, G. Heuillet, J. Monticelli, and A. Jouve, “Recent developments in technics of electric stimulation of the heart: Relay pacemaker stimulation by intracorporeal apparatus,” (in French), Mars. Med., vol. 104, no. 7, pp. 637–644, 1967.
8. M. Visocchi, A. Giordano, M. Calcagni, B. Cioni, F. Di Rocco, and M. Meglio, “Spinal cord stimulation and cerebral blood flow in stroke: Personal experience,” Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., vol. 76, pp. 262–268, 2001.
9. K. Funahashi, N. Komai, M. Ogura, T. Kuwata, M. Nakai, and N. Tsuji, “Effects and indications of spinal cord stimulation on the vegetative syndrome,” (in Japanese), No Shinkei Geka, vol. 17, no. 10, pp. 917–923, Oct. 1989.
10. R. B. North, D. H. Kidd, F. Farrokhi, and S. Piantadosi, “Spinal cord stimulation versus repeated lumbosacral spine surgery for
11. chronic pain: A randomized, controlled trial,” Neurosurgery, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 98–107, 2005.
12. K. Kumar, R. S. Taylor, L. Jacques, S. Eldabe, M. Meglio, J. Molet, S. Thomson, J. O'Callaghan E. Eisenberg, G. Milbouw, E. Buchser, G. Fortini, J. Richardson, and R. B. North, “Spinal cord stimulation versus conventional medical management for neuropathic pain: A multicenter randomized controlled trial in patients with failed back surgery syndrome,” Pain, vol. 132, no. 1–2, pp. 179–188, 2007.
13. M. A. Kemler, G. A. M. Barendse, M. van Kleef, H. C. W. De Vet, C. P. M. Rijks, C. A. Furnee, and F. A. J. M. van den Wildenberg, “Spinal cord stimulation in patients with chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy,” New Eng. J. Med., vol. 343, no. 9, pp. 618–624, 2000.
14. C. Mannheimer, T. Eliasson, L.-E. Augustinsson, C. Blomstrand, H. Emanuelsson, S. Larsson, H. Norrsell, and A. Hjalmarsson, “Electrical stimulation versus coronary artery bypass surgery in seere angina pectoris: The ESBY study,” Circulation, vol. 97, no. 12, pp. 1156–1163, 1998.
15. J. E. Sanderson, B. Ibrahim, D. Waterhouse, and R. B. Palmer, “Spinal electrical stimulation for intractable angina—Long-term clinical outcome and safety,” Eur. Heart J., vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 810–814, Jun. 1994.
16. M. J. de Jongste, R. W. Hautvast, H. L. Hillege, and K. I. Lie, “Efficacy of spinal cord stimulation as adjuvant therapy for intractable angina pectoris: A prospective, randomized clinical study,” J. Amer. Coll. Cardiol., vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 1592–1597, Jun. 1994.
17. A. W. Ghajar and J. B. Miles, “The differential effect of the level of spinal cord stimulation on patients with advanced peripheral vascular disease in the lower limbs,” Br. J. Neurosurg., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 402–408, 1998.
18. C. F. Maher, M. P. Carey, P. L. Dwyer, and P. I. Schlucter, “Percutaneous sacral nerve root neuromodulation for intractable interstitial cystitis,” J. Urol., vol. 165, pp. 884–886, Mar. 2001.
19. R. B. North, M. E. Ewend, M. A. Lawton, and S. Piantadosi, “Spinal cord stimulation for chronic, intractable pain: Superiority of 'multi-channel’ devices,” Pain, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 119–130, 1991.
20. J. Holsheimer, “Effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation in the management of chronic pain: Analysis of technical drawbacks and solutions,” Neurosurgery, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 990–999, May 1997.
21. M. Tulgar, J. He, G. Barolat, B. Ketcik, H. Struijk, and J. Holsheimer, “Analysis of parameters for epidural spinal cord stimulation, 3: Topographical distribution of paresthesiae—A preliminary analysis of 266 combinations with contacts implanted in the midcervical and midthoracic vertebral levels,” Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 146–155, 1993.
22. J. Holsheimer, G. Barolat, J. J. Struijk, and J. He, “Significance of the spinal cord position in spinal cord stimulation,” Acta Neurochir. Suppl., vol. 64, pp. 119–124, 1995.
23. J. Holsheimer, J. A. den Boer, J. J. Struijk, and A. R. Rozeboom, “MR assessment of the normal position of the spinal cord in the spinal canal,” Am. J. Neuroradiol., vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 951–959, 1994.
24. J. Holsheimer and W. A. Wesselink, “Optimum electrode geometry for spinal cord stimulation: The narrow bipole and tripole,” Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 493–497, 1997.
25. J. Holsheimer, B. Nuttin, G. W. King, W. A. Wesselink, J. M. Gybels, and P. de Sutter, “Clinical evaluation of paresthesia steering with a new system for spinal cord stimulation,” Neurosurgery, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 541–547, Mar. 1998.
26. J. N. Campbell and R. A. Meyer, “Primary afferents and hyperalgesia, ” in Spinal Afferent Processing, T. L. Yaksh, Ed. New York: Plenum, 1986, pp. 59–81.
27. B. A. Meyerson, J. Boethius, L. Terenius, and A. Wahlstrom, “Endorphin mechanisms in pain relief with intracerebral and dorsal column stimulation [abstract],” in Proc. 3rd Meeting Eur. Soc. Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., Freiburg, Germany, 1977.
28. T. B. Freeman, J. N. Campbell, and D. L. Long, “Naloxone does not affect pain relief induced by electrical stimulation in man,” Pain, vol. 17, pp. 189–195, 1983.
29. J. J. Bonica, T. Yaksh, J. C. Liebeskind, R. N. Pechnick, and A. Depaulis, “Biochemistry and modulation of nociception and pain,” in The Management of Pain, J. J. Bonica, Ed., 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1990, pp. 95–121.
30. B. Linderoth, B. Gazelius, J. Franck, and E. Brodin, “Dorsal column stimulation induces release of serotonin and substance P in the cat dorsal horn,” Neurosurgery, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 289–296, Aug. 1992.
31. B. Linderoth, C. O. Stiller, W. T. O'Connor, G. Hammarstrom, U. Ungerstedt, and E. Brodin, “An animal model for the study of brain transmittor release in response to spinal cord stimulation in the awake, freely moving rat: Preliminary results from the periaqueductal grey matter,” Acta Neurochir. Suppl. (Wien), vol. 58, pp. 156–160, 1993.
32. B. A. Meyerson, P. Herregodts, B. Linderoth, and B. Ren, “An experimental animal model of spinal cord stimulation for pain,” Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., vol. 62, no. 1–4, pp. 256–262, 1994.
33. C. O. Stiller, B. Linderoth, W. T. O'Connor J. Franck, T. Falkenberg, U. Ungerstedt, and E. Brodin, “Repeated spinal cord stimulation decreases the extracellular level of gamma-aminobutyric acid in the periaqueductal gray matter of freely moving rats,” Brain Res., vol. 699, pp. 231–241, Nov. 1995.
34. B. A. Meyerson, E. Brodin, and B. Linderoth, “Possible neurohumoral mechanisms in CNS stimulation for pain suppression,” Appl. Neurophysiol., vol. 48, no. 1–6, pp. 175–180, 1985.
35. J. G. Cui, A. Sollevi, B. Linderoth, and B. A. Meyerson, “Adenosine receptor activation suppresses tactile hypersensitivity and potentiates spinal cord stimulation in mononeuropathic rats,” Neurosci. Lett., vol. 223, pp. 173–176, Feb. 1997.
36. V. Yakhnitsa, B. Linderoth, and B. A. Meyerson, “Spinal cord stimulation attenuates dorsal horn neuronal hyperexcitability in a rat model of mononeuropathy,” Pain, vol. 79, pp. 223–233, 1999.
37. C. O. Stiller, J. G. Cui, W. T. O'Connor E. Brodin, B. A. Meyerson, and B. Linderoth, “Release of gamma-aminobutyric acid in the dorsal horn and suppression of tactile allodynia by spinal cord stimulation in mononeuropathic rats,” Neurosurgery, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 367–374, 1996.
38. J. G. Cui, B. Linderoth, and B. A. Meyerson, “Effects of spinal cord stimulation on touch-evoked allodynia involve GABAergic mechanisms. An experimental study in the
39. mononeuropathic rat,” Pain, vol. 66, pp. 287–295, 1996.
40. B. A. Meyerson, B. Ren, P. Herregodts, and B. Linderoth, “Spinal cord stimulation in animal models of mononeuropathy: Effects on the withdrawal response and the flexor reflex,” Pain, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 229–243, May 1995.
41. B. Ren, B. Linderoth, and B. A. Meyerson, “Effects of spinal cord stimulation on the flexor reflex and involvement of supraspinal mechanisms: An experimental study in mononeuropathic rats,” J. Neurosurg., vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 244–249, 1996.
42. J. G. Cui, B. A. Meyerson, A. Sollevi, and B. Linderoth, “Effect of spinal cord stimulation on tactile hypersensitivity in mononeuropathic rats is potentiated by simultaneous GABA(B) and adenosine receptor activation,” Neurosci. Lett., vol. 247, pp. 183–186, 1998.
43. B. A. Meyerson, J. G. Cui, V. Yakhnitsa, A. Sollevi, M. Segerdahl, C. O. Stiller, W. T. O'Connor, and B. Linderoth, “Modulation of spinal pain mechanisms by spinal cord stimulation and the potential role of adjuvant pharmacotherapy,” Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., vol. 68, no. 1–4, pt. 1, pp. 129–140, 1997.
44. J. Wallin, J. G. Cui, V. Yakhnitsa, G. Schechtmann, B. A. Meyerson, and B. Linderoth, “Gabapentin and pregabalin suppress tactile allodynia and potentiate spinal cord stimulation in a model of neuropathy,” Eur. J. Pain, vol. 6, pp. 261–272, 2002.
45. G. Schechtmann, J. Wallin, B. A. Meyerson, and B. Linderoth, “Intrathecal clonidine potentiates suppression of tactile hypersensitivity by spinal cord stimulation in a model of neuropathy,” Anesth. Analg., vol. 99, pp. 135–139, 2004.
46. J. G. Cui, W. T. O'Connor, U. Ungerstedt, B. Linderoth, and B. A. Meyerson, “Spinal cord stimulation attenuates augmented dorsal horn release of excitatory amino acids in mononeuropathy via a GABAergic mechanism,” Pain, vol. 73, pp. 87–95, 1997.
47. D. Li, H. Yang, B. A. Meyerson, and B. Linderoth, “Response to spinal cord stimulation in variants of the spared nerve injury pain model,” Neurosci. Lett., vol. 400, pp. 115–120, 2006.
48. H. Smits, C. Ultenius, R. Deumens, G. C. Koopmans, W. M. Honig, M. van Kleef, B. Linderoth, and E. A. Joosten, “Effect of spinal cord stimulation in an animal model of neuropathic pain relates to degree of tactile 'allodynia’,” Neuroscience, vol. 143, pp. 541–546, Dec. 2006.
49. L. P. Kimble, D. B. McGuire, S. B. Dunbar, S. Fazio, A. De, W. S. Weintraub, and O. S. Strickland, “Gender differences in pain characteristics of chronic stable angina and perceived physical limitation in patients with coronary artery disease,” Pain, vol. 101, pp. 45–53, Jan. 2003.
50. S. M. Hilton and J. M. Marshall, “Dorsal root vasodilatation in cat skeletal muscle,” J. Physiol., vol. 299, pp. 277–288, 1980.
51. K. W. Barron, B. Linderoth, M. J. Chandler, and R. D. Foreman, “Does dorsal column stimulation (DCS) at clinical current intensity elicit antidromic mediated cutaneous vasodilatation?” Soc. Neurosci., vol. 23, p. 1954, 1997, abstract.
52. J. E. Croom, R. D. Foreman, M. J. Chandler, and K. W. Barron, “Cutaneous vasodilation during dorsal column stimulation is mediated by dorsal roots and CGRP,” Amer. J. Physiol., vol. 272, no. 2, pt. 2, pp. H950-H957, 1997.
53. J. E. Croom, R. D. Foreman, M. J. Chandler, and K. W. Barron, “Reevaluation of the role of the sympathetic nervous system in cutaneous vasodilatation during dorsal spinal cord stimulation: Are multiple mechanisms active?” Neuromodulation, vol. 1, pp. 91–101, 1998.
54. B. Linderoth, P. Herregodts, and B. A. Meyerson, “Sympathetic mediation of peripheral vasodilation induced by spinal cord stimulation: Animal studies of the role of cholinergic and adrenergic receptor subtypes,” Neurosurgery, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 711–719, 1994.
55. B. Linderoth, “Physiological mechanisms of spinal cord stimulation for the relief of pain, ” in Management of Pain—A World Perspective, J. A. de Vera, W. Parris, and S. Erdine, Eds. Bologna, Italy: Monduzzi Editore, 1998, pp. 405–411.
56. B. Linderoth and B. A. Meyerson, “Spinal cord stimulation: Mechanisms of action,” in Surgical Management of Pain, K. Burchiel, Ed. New York: Thieme Verlag, 2002, pp. 505–526.
57. C. Mannheimer, T. Eliasson, B. Andersson, C. H. Bergh, L. E. Augustinsson, H. Emanuelsson, and F. Waagstein, “Effects of spinal cord stimulation in angina pectoris induced by pacing and possible mechanisms of action,” Br. Med. J., vol. 307, no. 6902, pp. 477–480, 1993.
58. T. Eliasson, C. Mannheimer, F. Waagstein, B. Andersson, C.-H. Bergh, L.-E. Augustinsson, T. Hedner, and G. Larson, “Myocardial turnover of endogenous opioids and calcitonin- gene-related peptide in the human heart and the effects of spinal cord stimulation on pacing- induced angina pectoris,” Cardiology, vol. 89, pp. 170–177, 1998.
59. R. W. Hautvast, P. K. Blanksma, M. J. DeJongste J. Pruim, E. E. van der Wall, W. Vaalburg, and K. I. Lie, “Effect of spinal cord stimulation on myocardial blood flow assessed by positron emission tomography in patients with refractory angina pectoris Amer. J. Cardiol., vol. 77, no. 7, pp. 462–467, 1996.
60. G. A. J. Jessurun, M. J. L. DeJongste and P. K. Blanksma, “Current views on neurostimulation in the treatment of cardiac ischemic syndromes,” Pain, vol. 66, no. 2–3, pp. 109–116, 1996.
61. A. Chauhan, P. A. Mullins, S. I. Thuraisingham, G. Taylor, M. C. Petch, and P. M. Schofield, “Effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on coronary blood flow,” Circulation, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 694–702, 1994.
62. B. Linderoth, G. Gherardini, B. Ren, and T. Lundeberg, “Severe peripheral ischemia after vasospasm may be prevented by spinal cord stimulation: A preliminary report of a study in a free-flap animal model,” Acta Neurochir. Suppl., vol. 64, pp. 101–105, 1995.
63. G. Gherardini, T. Lundeberg, J. G. Cui, S. V. Eriksson, S. Trubek, and B. Linderoth, “Spinal cord stimulation improves survival in ischemic skin flaps: An experimental study of the possible mediation by calcitonin gene-related peptide,” Plast. Reconstr. Surg., vol. 103, no. 4, pp. 1221–1228, Apr. 1999.
64. S. Tanaka, K. W. Barron, M. J. Chandler, B. Linderoth, and R. D. Foreman, “Low intensity spinal cord stimulation may induce cutaneous vasodilation via CGRP release,” Brain Res., vol. 896, pp. 183–187, 2001.
65. S. Tanaka, K. W. Barron, M. J. Chandler, B. Linderoth, and R. D. Foreman, “Role of primary afferents in spinal cord
66. stimulation-induced vasodilation: Characterization of fiber types,” Brain Res., vol. 959, no. 2, pp. 191–198, 2003.
67. M. We, N. Komori, C. Qin, J. P. Farber, B. Linderoth, and R. D. Foreman, “Sensory fibers containing vanilloid receptor-1 (VR-1) mediate spinal cord stimulation-induced vasodilation,” Brain Res., vol. 1107, pp. 177–184, 2006.
68. S. Tanaka, K. W. Barron, M. J. Chandler, B. Linderoth, and R. D. Foreman, “Local cooling alters neural mechanisms producing changes in peripheral blood flow by spinal cord stimulation,” Auton. Neurosci., vol. 28, pp. 117–127, 2003.
69. S. Tanaka, N. Komori, K. W. Barron, M. J. Chandler, B. Linderoth, and R. D. Foreman, “Mechanisms of sustained cutaneous vasodilation induced by spinal cord stimulation,” Auton. Neurosci., vol. 114, pp. 55–60, 2004.
70. L. A. Geddes and L. E. Baker, “The specific resistance of biological material: A compendium of data for the biomedical engineer and physiologist,” Med. Biol. Eng., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 271–293, May 1967.
71. J. B. Ranck and S. L. BeMent, “The specific impedance of the dorsal columns of the cat: An anisotropic medium,” Exp. Neurol., vol. 11, pp. 451–463, 1965.
72. B. Coburn, “A theoretical study of epidural electrical stimulation of the spinal cord. Part II: Effects on long myelinated fibers,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. BE-32, pp. 978–986, Nov. 1985.
73. J. B. Rusinko, C. F. Walker, and N. G. Sepulvedo, “Finite element modeling of potentials within the human thoracic spinal cord due to applied electrical stimulation, ” in Proc. 3rd Annu. Conf. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1982, vol. 76.
74. W. K. Sin and B. Coburn, “Electrical stimulation of the spinal cord: A further analysis relating to anatomic factors and tissue properties,” Med. Biol. Eng. Comp., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 264–269, May 1983.
75. J. Holsheimer and J. J. Struijk, “How do geometric factors influence epidural spinal cord stimulation? A quantitative analysis by computer modeling,” Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 234–249, 1991.
76. D. R. McNeal, “Analysis of a model for excitation of myelinated nerve,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. BE-23, pp. 329–337, Jul. 1976.
77. S. Y. Chiu, J. M. Ritchie, R. B. Rogart, and D. Stagg, “A quantitative description of membrane currents in rabbit myelinated nerve,” J. Physiol., vol. 292, pp. 149–166, 1979.
78. W. A. Wesselink, J. Holsheimer, B. Nuttin, H. B. K. Boom, G. W. King, J. M. Gybels, and P. de Sutter, “Estimation of fiber diameters in the spinal dorsal columns from clinical data, ” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 45, pp. 1355–1362, Nov. 1998.
79. J. J. Struijk, J. Holsheimer, G. Barolat, J. He, and H. B. K. Boom, “Paresthesia thresholds in spinal cord stimulation: A comparison of theoretical results with clinical data,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 101-108,1993.
80. R. Hoekema, K. Venner, J. J. Struijk, and J. Holsheimer, “Multigrid solution of the potential field in modeling electrical nerve stimulation,” Comput. Biomed. Res., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 348–362, 1998.
81. Y. Hosobuchi, J. E. Adams, and P. R. Weinstein, “Preliminary percutaneous
82. dorsal column stimulation prior to permanent implantation,” J. Neurosurg., vol. 17, pp. 242–245, 1972.
83. R. B. North, T. A. Fischell, and D. M. Long, “Chronic stimulation via percutaneously inserted epidural electrodes,” Neurosurgery, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 215–218, 1977.
84. R. B. North and K. R. Fowler, “Computer-controlled, patient-interactive, multichannel, implanted neurological stimulators,” Appl. Neurophysiol., vol. 50, pp. 39–41, 1987.
85. R. B. North, D. H. Kidd, J. C. Olin, and J. N. Sieracki, “Spinal cord stimulation electrode design: A prospective, randomized, controlled trial comparing percutaneous and laminectomy electrodes—Part I: Technical outcomes,” Neurosurgery, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 381–389, 2002.
86. R. B. North, D. H. Kidd, L. Petrucci, and M. D. Dorsi, “Spinal cord stimulation electrode design: A prospective, randomized, controlled trial comparing percutaneous with laminectomy electrodes—Part II, Clinical outcomes,” Neurosurgery, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 990–995, 2005.
87. J. D. Law, “Targeting a spinal stimulator to treat the 'failed back surgery syndrome’,” Appl. Neurophysiol., vol. 50, pp. 437–438, 1987.
88. J. D. Law, “Spinal stimulation in the 'failed back surgery syndrome’: Comparison of technical criteria for palliating pain in the leg vs. in the low back,” Acta Neurochir., vol. 117, p. 95, 1992.
89. R. B. North, D. H. Kidd, J. Olin, J. M. Sieracki, F. Farrokhi, L. Petrucci, and P. N. Cutchis, “Spinal cord stimulation for axial low back pain: A prospective, controlled trial comparing dual with single percutaneous electrodes,” Spine, vol. 30, no. 12, pp. 1412–1418, 2005.
90. R. B. North, D. H. Kidd, J. Olin, J. N. Sieracki, and L. Petrucci, “Spinal cord stimulation for axial low back pain: A prospective, controlled trial comparing 16-contact insulated electrode arrays with 4-contact percutaneous electrodes,” Neuromodulation, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 56–67, 2006.
91. J. Holsheimer, J. J. Struijk, and N. R. Tas, “Effects of electrode geometry and combination on nerve fibre selectivity in spinal cord stimulation,” Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 676–682, Sep. 1995.
92. J. J. Struijk, J. Holsheimer, G. H. Spincemaille, F. L. Gielen, and R. Hoekema, “Theoretical performance and clinical evaluation of transverse tripolar spinal cord stimulation,” IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng., vol. 6, pp. 277–285, Sep. 1998.
93. G. Lind, B. A. Meyerson, J. Winter, and B. Linderoth, “Intrathecal baclofen as an adjuvant therapy to enhance the effect of spinal cord stimulation in neuropathic pain: A pilot study,” Eur. J. Pain, vol. 8, pp. 377–383, 2004.
94. V. M. Renard and R. B. North, “Prevention of percutaneous electrode migration in spinal cord stimulation by a modification of the standard implantation technique,” J. Neurosurg. Spine, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 300–303, 2006.
95. R. S. Taylor, R. J. Taylor, J.-P. Van Buyten, E. Buchser, R. North, and S. Bayliss, “The cost effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of pain: A systematic review of the literature,” J. Pain Sympt. Manage., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 370–378, 2004.
96. S. Blond, N. Buisset, P. Dam Hieu, J. P. Nguyen, Y. Lazorthes N. Cantagrel, B. Laugner, F. Bellow, M.-C. Djian, J.-L. Husson, F. Lapierre, and J.-L. Blanc, “Cost-benefit evaluation of spinal cord stimulation treatment for failed-back surgery syndrome patients,” (in French), Neurochirurgie, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 443–453, Sep. 2004.
97. M. A. Kemler and C. A. Furnee, “Economic evaluation of spinal cord stimulation for chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy,” Neurology, vol. 59, no. 8, pp. 1203–1209, Oct. 2002.
98. P. Andrell, O. Ekre, T. Eliasson, C. Blomstrand, M. Borjesson, M. Nilsson, and C. Mannheimer, “Cost-effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation versus coronary artery bypass grafting in patients with severe angina pectoris—Long-term results from the ESBY study,” Cardiology, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 20–24, 2003.
99. R. B. North, D. Kidd, J. Shipley, and R. Taylor, “Spinal cord stimulation versus reoperation for failed back surgery syndrome: A cost effectiveness and cost utility analysis based on a randomized, controlled trial,” Neurosurgery, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 361–368, 2007.