Offshore macroalgae biomass for bioenergy production: Environmental aspects, technological achievements and challenges

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Volumn 75, Issue , 2017, Pages 35-45

  Fernand, Francois ^a,b   Israel, Alvaro ^c   Skjermo, Jorunn ^d   Wichard, Thomas ^e   Timmermans, Klaas R ^f   Golberg, Alexander ^a  

^a TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^b AIX MARSEILLE UNIVERSITY   (France)

^c ISRAEL OCEANOGRAPHIC AND LIMNOLOGICAL RESEARCH   (Israel)

^d SINTEF OCEAN   (Norway)

^e FRIEDRICH SCHILLER UNIVERSITY JENA   (Germany)

^f ROYAL NETHERLANDS INSTITUTE FOR SEA RESEARCH   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Algae biofuel; Aquaculture; Bioenergy; Biofuels; Biorefinery; Fermentation; Macroalgae; Offshore; Policy making; Renewable energy; Seaweed cultivation

Indexed keywords

BIOCONVERSION; BIOETHANOL; BIOMASS; COST ENGINEERING; EUTROPHICATION; FOSSIL FUELS; MATERIALS HANDLING; REFINING; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT;

ALGAE BIOFUELS; BIO-ENERGY; BIOENERGY PRODUCTIONS; BIOREFINERIES; ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS; MACRO-ALGAE; OFFSHORES; POLICY MAKING; RENEWABLE ENERGIES; SEAWEED CULTIVATION;

CULTIVATION;

EID: 85007242093     PISSN: 13640321     EISSN: 18790690     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.046     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. [1] Bentsen, N.S., Felby, C., Biomass for energy in the European Union – a review of bioenergy resource assessments. Biotechnol Biofuels, 5, 2012, 25, 10.1186/1754-6834-5-25.
2. [2] Fatih Demirbas, M., Biorefineries for biofuel upgrading: a critical review. Appl Energy 86 (2009), S151–S161, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.04.043.
3. [3] Agency, I.E., World Energy Outlook, 2011.
4. [4] Keasling, J.D., Chou, H., Metabolic engineering delivers next-generation biofuels. Nat Biotechnol 26 (2008), 298–299, 10.1038/nbt0308-298.
5. [5] Dunlop, M.J., Engineering microbes for tolerance to next-generation biofuels. Biotechnol Biofuels, 4, 2011, 32, 10.1186/1754-6834-4-32.
6. [6] Lee, S.K., Chou, H., Ham, T.S., Lee, T.S., Keasling, J.D., Metabolic engineering of microorganisms for biofuels production: from bugs to synthetic biology to fuels. Curr Opin Biotechnol 19 (2008), 556–563, 10.1016/j.copbio.2008.10.014.
7. [7] Bokinsky, G., Peralta-Yahya, P.P., George, A., Holmes, B.M., Steen, E.J., Dietrich, J., et al. Synthesis of three advanced biofuels from ionic liquid-pretreated switchgrass using engineered Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108 (2011), 19949–19954, 10.1073/pnas.1106958108.
8. [8] Steen, E.J., Kang, Y., Bokinsky, G., Hu, Z., Schirmer, A., McClure, A., et al. Microbial production of fatty-acid-derived fuels and chemicals from plant biomass. Nature 463 (2010), 559–562, 10.1038/nature08721.
9. [9] Peralta-Yahya, P.P., Ouellet, M., Chan, R., Mukhopadhyay, A., Keasling, J.D., Lee, T.S., Identification and Microbial production of a terpene-based advanced biofuel. Nat Commun, 2, 2011, 483, 10.1038/ncomms1494.
10. [10] Zhang, H., Liu, Q., Cao, Y., Feng, X., Zheng, Y., Zou, H., et al. Microbial production of sabinene – a new terpene-based precursor of advanced biofuel. Micro Cell Fact, 13, 2014, 20, 10.1186/1475-2859-13-20.
11. [11] Star-coliBRi. European Biorefinery Joint Strategic Research Roadmap for 2020; 2011.
12. [12] Shilton, A., Guieysse, B., Sustainable sunlight to biogas is via marginal organics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 21 (2010), 287–291, 10.1016/j.copbio.2010.03.008.
13. [13] Trimble, J.L., Hook RI, Van, Folger, A.G., Biomass for energy: the environmental issues. Biomass Bioenergy 6 (1984), 3–13.
14. [14] Hannon, M., Gimpel, J., Tran, M., Rasala, B., Mayfield, S., Biofuels from algae: challenges and potential. Biofuels 1 (2010), 763–784, 10.4155/bfs.10.44.
15. [15] Maier, C.M., Pregnall, A.M., Hole, W., Mar Biol Gt Harb 271 (1990), 263–271.
16. [16] Daroch, M., Geng, S., Wang, G., Recent advances in liquid biofuel production from algal feedstocks. Appl Energy 102 (2013), 1371–1381, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.07.031.
17. [17] Koh, L.P., Ghazoul, J., Biofuels, biodiversity, and people: understanding the conflicts and finding opportunities. Biol Conserv 141 (2008), 2450–2460, 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.08.005.
18. [18] Wei, N., Quarterman, J., Jin, Y.-S., Marine macroalgae: an untapped resource for producing fuels and chemicals. Trends Biotechnol 31 (2013), 70–77, 10.1016/j.tibtech.2012.10.009.
19. [19] Enquist-Newman, M., Faust, A.M.E., Bravo, D.D., Santos, C.N.S., Raisner, R.M., Hanel, A., et al. Efficient ethanol production from brown macroalgae sugars by a synthetic yeast platform. Nature 505 (2014), 239–243, 10.1038/nature12771.
20. [20] Potts, T., Du, J., Paul, M., May, P., Beitle, R., Hestekin, J., The production of butanol from Jamaica bay macro algae. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 31 (2012), 29–36, 10.1002/ep.10606.
21. [21] Kraan, S., Mass-cultivation of carbohydrate rich macroalgae, a possible solution for sustainable biofuel production. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 18 (2013), 27–46, 10.1007/s11027-010-9275-5.
22. [22] Roesijadi, G., Jones, S.B.B., Snowden-Swan, L.J., Zhu, Y., Macroalgae as a biomass feedstock: a preliminary analysis. Dep Energy Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 Pac Northwest Natl Lab, 2010, 1–50.
23. [23] Wargacki, A.J., Leonard, E., Win, M.N., Regitsky, D.D., Santos, C.N.S., Kim, P.B., et al. An engineered microbial platform for direct biofuel production from brown macroalgae. Science 335 (2012), 308–313, 10.1126/science.1214547.
24. [24] van der Wal, H., Sperber, B.L.H.M., Houweling-Tan, B., Bakker, R.R.C., Brandenburg, W., López-Contreras, A.M., Production of acetone, butanol, and ethanol from biomass of the green seaweed Ulva lactuca. Bioresour Technol 128 (2013), 431–437, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.10.094.
25. [25] Bird K. Cost analyses of energy from marine biomass. in: Bi. Seaweed Cultiv. Renew. Resour, 327–350; 1987.
26. [26] Buck, B.H., Buchholz, C.M., The offshore-ring: a new system design for the open ocean aquaculture of macroalgae. J Appl Phycol 16 (2004), 355–368, 10.1023/B:JAPH.0000047947.96231.ea.
27. [27] Marine biomass from offshore wind parks. 〈http://www.submariner-project.eu/index.php?Option=com_content&view=article&id=159:marine-biomass-from-offshore-wind-parks&catid=62:regionalactivitiesdenmark&Itemid=402〉 n.d.
28. [28] Troell M, Hecht T, Beveridge M, Stead S, Bryceson I, Kautsky N. et al. Mariculture in the WIO region Challenges and Prospects. WIOMSA, p. 59; 2011.
29. [29] Troell, M., Joyce, A., Chopin, T., Neori, A., Buschmann, A.H., Fang, J.G., Ecological engineering in aquaculture - potential for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine offshore systems. Aquaculture 297 (2009), 1–9, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.09.010.
30. [30] Martins, I., Oliveira, J.M., Flindt, M.R., Marques, J.C., The effect of salinity on the growth rate of the macroalgae Enteromorpha intestinalis (Chlorophyta) in the Mondego estuary (west Portugal). Acta Oecologica 20 (1999), 259–265, 10.1016/S1146-609X(99)00140-X.
31. [31] Hawes, I., Smith, R., Effect of current velocity on the detachment of thalli of Ulva lactuca (cChlorophyta) in a New Zealand estuary. J Phycol 31 (1995), 875–880, 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1995.00875.x.
32. [32] Bjornsater, B.R., Wheeler, P.A., Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus supply on growth and tissue composition of Ulva fenestrata and Enteromorpha intestinalis (Ulvales, Chlorophyta). J Phycol 26 (1990), 603–611, 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1990.00603.x.
33. [33] Lapointe, B.E., Barile, P.J., Matzie, W.R., Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment of seagrass and coral reef communities in the Lower Florida Keys: discrimination of local versus regional nitrogen sources., 308, 2004, 10.1016/j.jembe.2004.01.019.
34. [34] Carey, R.O., Migliaccio, K.W., Brown, M.T., Nutrient discharges to Biscayne Bay, Florida: trends, loads, and a pollutant index. Sci Total Environ, 409, 2011, 530–539, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.10.029.
35. [35] Sanderson, J.C., Cromey, C.J., Dring, M.J., Kelly, M.S., Distribution of nutrients for seaweed cultivation around salmon cages at farm sites in north-west Scotland. Aquaculture 278 (2008), 60–68, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.03.027.
36. [36] Carey, R.O., Hochmuth, G.J., Martinez, C.J., Boyer, T.H., Dukes, M.D., Toor, G.S., et al. Evaluating nutrient impacts in urban watersheds: challenges and research opportunities. Environ Pollut 173 (2013), 138–149, 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.10.004.
37. [37] Marinho-Soriano, E., Fonseca, P.C., Carneiro, M.A.A., Moreira, W.S.C., Seasonal variation in the chemical composition of two tropical seaweeds. Bioresour Technol 97 (2006), 2402–2406, 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.10.014.
38. [38] Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N., Hawkins, S.J., Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecol Evol 3 (2013), 4016–4038, 10.1002/ece3.774.
39. [39] Hughes, A.D., Kelly, M.S., Black, K.D., Stanley, M.S., Biogas from Macroalgae: is it time to revisit the idea?. Biotechnol Biofuels, 5, 2012, 86, 10.1186/1754-6834-5-86.
40. [40] Liu, D., Keesing, J.K., Xing, Q., Shi, P., World's largest macroalgal bloom caused by expansion of seaweed aquaculture in China. Mar Pollut Bull 58 (2009), 888–895, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.01.013.
41. [41] Liu, D., Keesing, J.K., Dong, Z., Zhen, Y., Di, B., Shi, Y., et al. Recurrence of the world's largest green-tide in 2009 in Yellow Sea, China: Porphyra yezoensis aquaculture rafts confirmed as nursery for macroalgal blooms. Mar Pollut Bull, 60, 2010, 1423–1432, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.05.015.
42. [42] Liu, D., Keesing, J.K., He, P., Wang, Z., Shi, Y., Wang, Y., The world's largest macroalgal bloom in the Yellow Sea, China: formation and implications. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci, 129, 2013, 2–10, 10.1016/j.ecss.2013.05.021.
43. [43] Lorentsen, S.H., Sjøtun, K., Grémillet, D., Multi-trophic consequences of kelp harvest. Biol Conserv 143 (2010), 2054–2062, 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.05.013.
44. [44] Radulovich, R., Umanzor, S., Cabrera, R., Mata, R., Tropical seaweeds for human food, their cultivation and its effect on biodiversity enrichment. Aquaculture 436 (2015), 40–46, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.10.032.
45. [45] Christie, H., Fredriksen, S., Rinde, E., Regrowth of kelp and colonization of epiphyte and fauna community after kelp trawling at the coast of Norway. Hydrobiologia 376 (1998), 49–58, 10.1023/A:1017021325189.
46. [46] Ortiz, M., Dynamic and spatial models of kelp forest of Macrocystis integrifolia and Lessonia trabeculata (SE Pacific) for assessment harvest scenarios: short-term responses. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 20 (2010), 494–506, 10.1002/aqc.1126.
47. [47] Sharp, G.J., Pringle, J.D., Ecological impact of marine plant harvesting in the northwest Atlantic: a review. Hydrobiologia 204–205 (1990), 17–24, 10.1007/BF00040210.
48. [48] Springer, Y., Hays, C., Carr, M., Mackey, M., Toward ecosystem-based management of marine macroalgae-the bull kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana. Oceano Mar Biol Annu Rev 48 (2010), 1–42, 10.1201/EBK1439821169-c1.
49. [49] Thompson, S.A., Knoll, H., Blanchette, C.A., Nielsen, K.J., Population consequences of biomass loss due to commercial collection of the wild seaweed Postelsia palmaeformis. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 413 (2010), 17–31, 10.3354/meps08705.
50. [50] Adams, J.M.M., Toop, T.A., Donnison, I.S., Gallagher, J.A., Seasonal variation in Laminaria digitata and its impact on biochemical conversion routes to biofuels. Bioresour Technol 102 (2011), 9976–9984, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.08.032.
51. [51] Vásquez, J.A., Production, use and fate of Chilean brown seaweeds: re-sources for a sustainable fishery. [vol. 2] Borowitzka, M.A., Critchley, A.T., Kraan, S., Peters, A., Sjøtun, K., Notoya, M., (eds.) Ninet. Int. Seaweed Symp. Dev. Appl. Phycol, 2, 2009, Dordrecht: Springer, Netherlands, 7–17, 10.1007/978-1-4020-9619-8.
52. [52] Taelman, S.E., Champenois, J., Edwards, M.D., De Meester, S., Dewulf, J., Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of two seaweed cultivation systems in North West Europe with a focus on quantifying sea surface occupation. Algal Res 11 (2015), 173–183, 10.1016/j.algal.2015.06.018.
53. [53] Dȩbowski, M., Zieliński, M., Grala, A., Dudek, M., Algae biomass as an alternative substrate in biogas production technologies - review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 27 (2013), 596–604, 10.1016/j.rser.2013.07.029.
54. [54] Kirkman, H., Kendrick, G.A., Ecological significance and commercial harvesting of drifting and beach-cast macro-algae and seagrasses in Australia: a review. J Appl Phycol 9 (1997), 311–326, 10.1023/A:1007965506873.
55. [55] Lenzi, M., Finoia, M.G., Persia, E., Comandi, S., Gargiulo, V., Solari, D., et al. Biogeochemical effects of disturbance in shallow water sediment by macroalgae harvesting boats. Mar Pollut Bull 50 (2005), 512–519, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.11.038.
56. [56] Werner, A., Kraan, S., Review of the Potential Mechanisation of Kelp Harvesting in Ireland. Marine Environment and Health Series, No. 17. Mar Environ Heal, 2004, 56 [doi:1649-0053].
57. [57] Peteiro, C., Freire, Ó., Outplanting time and methodologies related to mariculture of the edible kelp Undaria pinnatifida in the Atlantic coast of Spain. J Appl Phycol 24 (2012), 1361–1372, 10.1007/s10811-012-9788-2.
58. [58] Yokoyama, S., Jonouchi, K., Imou, K., Energy Production from Marine Biomass: fuel Cell. Power Gener Driven Methane Prod Seaweed 1 (2007), 320–323.
59. [59] Peteiro, C., Sánchez, N., Dueñas-Liaño, C., Martínez, B., Open-sea cultivation by transplanting young fronds of the kelp Saccharina latissima. J Appl Phycol 26 (2014), 519–528, 10.1007/s10811-013-0096-2.
60. [60] Druehl, L.D., Baird, R., Lindwall, A., Lloyd, K.E., Pakula, S., Longline cultivation of some Laminariaceae in British Columbia, Canada. Aquac Fish Manag 19 (1988), 253–263, 10.1111/j.1365-2109.1988.tb00428.x.
61. [61] Sanderson, J.C., Dring, M.J., Davidson, K., Kelly, M.S., Culture, yield and bioremediation potential of Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) Weber & Mohr and Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E. Lane, C. Mayes, Druehl & G.W. Saunders adjacent to fish farm cages in northwest Scotland. Aquaculture 354–355 (2012), 128–135, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.03.019.
62. [62] Kraan, S., Guiry, M.D., Phase II: Strain hybridisation Field Exp Genet Fingerpr Edible brown Seaweed Alaria esculenta, 2001, 18.
63. [63] Holt TJ. The development of techniques for the cultivation of Laminariales in the Irish Sea; 1984.
64. [64] Hanisak, M., Cultivation of Gracilaria and other macroalgae in Florida for energy production. Dev Aquac Fish Sci, 1987, 191–218.
65. [65] Lirasan, T., Twide, P., Fourteenth International Seaweed Symposium. Chapman, A.R.O., Brown, M.T., Lahaye, M., (eds.) Fourteenth Int. Seaweed Symp. Dev. Hydrobiol, 85, 1993, Dordrecht: Springer, Netherlands, 353–355, 10.1007/978-94-011-1998-6.
66. [66] Xie, E.Y., Liu, D.C., Jia, C., Chen, X.L., Yang, B., Artificial seed production and cultivation of the edible brown alga Sargassum naozhouense Tseng et Lu. J Appl Phycol 25 (2013), 513–522, 10.1007/s10811-012-9885-2.
67. [67] Choi, J.S., Cho, J.Y., Jin, L.G., Jin, H.J., Hong, Y.K., Procedures for the axenic isolation of conchocelis and monospores from the red seaweed Porphyra yezoensis. J Appl Phycol 14 (2002), 115–121, 10.1023/A:1019504203660.
68. [68] Wichard, T., Exploring bacteria-induced growth and morphogenesis in the green macroalga order Ulvales (Chlorophyta). Front Plant Sci, 6, 2015, 86, 10.3389/fpls.2015.00086.
69. [69] Neushul, M., Benson, J., Harger, B.W.W., Charters, A.C., Macroalgal farming in the sea: water motion and nitrate uptake. J Appl Phycol 4 (1992), 255–265, 10.1007/BF02161211.
70. [70] Hurd, C.L., Water motion, marine macroalgal physiology, and production. J Phycol 36 (2000), 453–472, 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2000.99139.x.
71. [71] Buck, B.H., Krause, G., Michler-Cieluch, T., Brenner, M., Buchholz, C.M., Busch, J.A., et al. Meeting the quest for spatial efficiency: progress and prospects of extensive aquaculture within offshore wind farms. Helgol Mar Res 62 (2008), 269–281, 10.1007/s10152-008-0115-x.
72. [72] Jung, K.A., Lim, S.R., Kim, Y., Park, J.M., Potentials of macroalgae as feedstocks for biorefinery. Bioresour Technol 135 (2013), 182–190, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.10.025.
73. [73] Klimakrise F-UND. FOCUS : SYSTEMIC RISKS, PART 2 Marine Aquaculture within Offshore Wind Farms : Social Aspects of Multiple-Use Planning 2009;184.
74. [74] Michler-Cieluch, T., Krause, G., Buck, B.H., Reflections on integrating operation and maintenance activities of offshore wind farms and mariculture. Ocean Coast Manag 52 (2009), 57–68, 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2008.09.008.
75. [75] Reith, J.H., Deurwaarder, E.P., Hemmes, K., Curvers, A.P.W.M., Kamermans, P., Brandenburg, W., Zeeman, G., Report ECN-C05-008 Bio-Offshore Grootschalige teelt Van zeewieren Comb Met Offshore Wind De Noordzee, 2005, 1–137.
76. [76] Rabalais, N.N., Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Ambio 31 (2002), 102–112, 10.2307/4315222.
77. [77] Davison, I.R., Stewart, W.D.P., Studies on nitrate reductase activity in Laminaria digitata (Huds.) Lamour. II. The role of nitrate availability in the regulation of enzyme activity. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 79 (1984), 65–78, 10.1016/0022-0981(84)90030-3.
78. [78] Buschmann, A.H., Varela, D.A., Hernández-González, M.C., Huovinen, P., Opportunities and challenges for the development of an integrated seaweed-based aquaculture activity in Chile: determining the physiological capabilities of Macrocystis and Gracilaria as biofilters. J Appl Phycol 20 (2008), 571–577, 10.1007/s10811-007-9297-x.
79. [79] Stachowicz, J.J., Graham, M., Bracken, M.E.S., Szoboszlai, A.I., Diversity enhances cover and stability of seaweed assemblages: the role of heterogeneity and time. Ecology 89 (2008), 3008–3019, 10.1890/07-1873.1.
80. [80] Zhang, X., Song, Y., Liu, D., Keesing, J.K., Gong, J., Macroalgal blooms favor heterotrophic diazotrophic bacteria in nitrogen-rich and phosphorus-limited coastal surface waters in the Yellow Sea. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci, 2014, 2–8, 10.1016/j.ecss.2014.12.015.
81. [81] Goecke, F., Labes, A., Wiese, J., Imhoff, J., Chemical interactions between marine macroalgae and bacteria. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 409 (2010), 267–299, 10.3354/meps08607.
82. [82] Grueneberg, J.A.H., Engelen, A., Costa, R., Wichard, T., Macroalgal morphogenesis induced by waterborne compounds and bacteria in coastal seawater. Plos One, 11(1), 2016, e0146307 10.1371/journal.pone.0146307.
83. [83] Handå, A., Forbord, S., Wang, X., Broch, O.J., Dahle, S.W., Størseth, T.R., et al. Seasonal- and depth-dependent growth of cultivated kelp (Saccharina latissima) in close proximity to salmon (Salmo salar) aquaculture in Norway. Aquaculture 414–415 (2013), 191–201, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.08.006.
84. [84] Msuya, F.E., Neori, A., Effect of water aeration and nutrient load level on biomass yield, N uptake and protein content of the seaweed Ulva lactuca cultured in seawater tanks. J Appl Phycol 20 (2008), 1021–1031, 10.1007/s10811-007-9300-6.
85. [85] Fei, X., Solving the coastal eutrophication problem by large scale seaweed cultivation. Hydrobiologia 512 (2004), 145–151, 10.1023/B:HYDR.0000020320.68331.ce.
86. [86] Golueke, C.G., Oswald, W.J., Gotaas, H.B., Anaerobic digestion of Algae. Appl Microbiol 5 (1957), 47–55.
87. [87] Morand, P., Briand, X., Excessive Growth of Macroalgae: a Symptom of Environmental Disturbance. Bot Mar 39 (1996), 491–516, 10.1515/botm.1996.39.1-6.491.
88. [88] Morand, P., Merceron, M., Pandalai, S.G., Coast eutrophication excessive growth macroalgae, 2004, 395–449.
89. [89] Yang, Y.F., Fei, X.G., Song, J.M., Hu, H.Y., Wang, G.C., Chung, I.K., Growth of Gracilaria lemaneiformis under different cultivation conditions and its effects on nutrient removal in Chinese coastal waters. Aquaculture 254 (2006), 248–255, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.08.029.
90. [90] Adey, W.H., Kangas, P.C., Mulbry, W., Algal Turf Scrubbing: Cleaning Surface Waters with Solar Energy while Producing a Biofuel. Bioscience 61 (2011), 434–441, 10.1525/bio.2011.61.6.5.
91. [91] Herbert, R. a., Nitrogen cycling in coastal marine ecosystems. FEMS Microbiol Rev 23 (1999), 563–590, 10.1016/S0168-6445(99)00022-4.
92. [92] Peters, E.C., Gassman, N.J., Firman, J.C., Richmond, R.H., Power, E.A., Ecotoxicology of tropical marine ecosystems. Environ Toxicol Chem 16 (1997), 12–40, 10.1002/etc.5620160103.
93. [93] Ratkevicius, N., Correa, J.A., Moenne, A., Copper accumulation, synthesis of ascorbate and activation of ascorbate peroxidase in Enteromorpha compressa (L.) Grev. (Chlorophyta) from heavy metal-enriched environments in northern Chile. Plant, Cell Environ 26 (2003), 1599–1608, 10.1046/j.1365-3040.2003.01073.x.
94. [94] Wahbeh, M.I., Mahasneh, D.M., Mahasneh, I., Concentrations of zinc, manganese, copper, cadmium, magnesium and iron in ten species of algae and sea water from Aqaba, Jordan. Mar Environ Res 16 (1985), 95–102, 10.1016/0141-1136(85)90011-X.
95. [95] Buschmann, A.H., Cabello, F., Young, K., Carvajal, J., Varela, D.A., Henríquez, L., Salmon aquaculture and coastal ecosystem health in Chile: analysis of regulations, environmental impacts and bioremediation systems. Ocean Coast Manag 52 (2009), 243–249, 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2009.03.002.
96. [96] FAO. A global assessment of offshore mariculture potential from a spatial perspective. 2013.
97. [97] Sanderson, J.C., Partner, A., Reducing Environ Impact Sea- Cage Fish Farming Cultiv Seaweed, 2006.
98. [98] Beavis, A., Charlier, R.H., Meye, C. De, Lamina ssp, 1986, 621–626.
99. [99] Troell, M., Halling, C., Neori, a., Chopin, T., Buschmann, a.H., Kautsky, N., et al. Integrated mariculture: asking the right questions. Aquaculture 226 (2003), 69–90, 10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00469-1.
100. [100] Wang, X., Broch, O., Forbord, S., Handå, A., Reitan, K., Skjermo, J., et al. Assimilation of inorganic nutrients from salmon farming by the macroalgae S. latissima in an exposed coastal environment: implications for IMTA. J Appl Phycol 26 (2013), 1869–1878.
101. [101] Broch, O., Ellingsen, I., Forbord, S., Wang, X., Volent, Z., Alver, M., et al. Modelling the cultivation and bioremediation potential of the kelp Saccharina latissima in close proximity to an exposed salmon farm in Norway. Aquac Environ Inter 4 (2013), 187–206, 10.3354/aei00080.
102. [102] Lüning, K., Pang, S., Mass cultivation of seaweeds: current aspects and approaches. J Appl Phycol 15 (2003), 115–119, 10.1023/A:1023807503255.
103. [103] Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., Soc Econ Dimens carrageenan Seaweed Farming, 2013.
104. [104] Briand, X., Morand, P., Anaerobic digestion of Ulva sp. 1. Relationship between Ulva composition and methanisation. J Appl Phycol 9 (1997), 511–524, 10.1023/A:1007972026328.
105. [105] Candra, K.P., Sarwono, Sarinah, Study on bioethanol production using red seaweed Eucheuma cottonii from Bontang sea water. J Coast Dev, 2011, 45–50.
106. [106] Khambhaty, Y., Mody, K., Gandhi, M.R., Thampy, S., Maiti, P., Brahmbhatt, H., et al. Kappaphycus alvarezii as a source of bioethanol. Bioresour Technol 103 (2012), 180–185, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.10.015.
107. [107] Meinita, M.D.N., Kang, J.Y., Jeong, G.T., Koo, H.M., Park, S.M., Hong, Y.K., Bioethanol production from the acid hydrolysate of the carrageenophyte Kappaphycus alvarezii (cottonii). J Appl Phycol 24 (2012), 857–862, 10.1007/s10811-011-9705-0.
108. [108] Wang, X., Liu, X., Wang, G., Two-stage hydrolysis of invasive algal feedstock for ethanol fermentation. J Integr Plant Biol 53 (2011), 246–252, 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.01024.x.
109. [109] Yanagisawa, M., Nakamura, K., Ariga, O., Nakasaki, K., Production of high concentrations of bioethanol from seaweeds that contain easily hydrolyzable polysaccharides. Process Biochem 46 (2011), 2111–2116, 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.08.001.
110. [110] Horn, S.J., Aasen, I.M., Ostgaard, K., Ethanol production from seaweed extract. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 25 (2000), 249–254, 10.1038/sj.jim.7000065.
111. [111] Adams, J.M., Gallagher, J.A., Donnison, I.S., Fermentation study on Saccharina latissima for bioethanol production considering variable pre-treatments. J Appl Phycol 21 (2009), 569–574, 10.1007/s10811-008-9384-7.
112. [112] Cho, Y., Kim, M., Kim, S., Ethanol production from seaweed. Enteromorpha Intest, Sepa- rate Hydrolys Ferment ( SHF ) Simultaneous Saccharifi- cation Ferment ( SSF ) Saccharomyces cerevisiae 28 (2013), 366–371.
113. [113] Borines, M.G., de Leon, R.L., Cuello, J.L., Bioethanol production from the macroalgae Sargassum spp. Bioresour Technol 138 (2013), 22–29, 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.03.108.
114. [114] Kumar, S., Gupta, R., Kumar, G., Sahoo, D., Kuhad, R.C., Bioethanol production from Gracilaria verrucosa, a red alga, in a biorefinery approach. Bioresour Technol 135 (2013), 150–156, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.10.120.
115. [115] Park, J.H., Hong, J.Y., Jang, H.C., Oh, S.G., Kim, S.H., Yoon, J.J., et al. Use of Gelidium amansii as a promising resource for bioethanol: a practical approach for continuous dilute-acid hydrolysis and fermentation. Bioresour Technol 108 (2012), 83–88, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.065.
116. [116] Baghel, R.S., Trivedi, N., Gupta, V., Neori, A., Reddy, C.R.K., Lali, A., et al. Biorefining of marine macroalgal biomass for production of biofuel and commodity chemicals. Green Chem, 2015, 10.1039/C4GC02532F.
117. [117] Huesemann, M.H., Kuo, L.J., Urquhart, L., Gill, G.A., Roesijadi, G., Acetone-butanol fermentation of marine macroalgae. Bioresour Technol 108 (2012), 305–309, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.148.
118. [118] Chaturvedi, V., Verma, P., An overview of key pretreatment processes employed for bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels and value added products. 3 Biotech 3 (2013), 415–431, 10.1007/s13205-013-0167-8.
119. [119] Maceiras, R., Rodrí, guez M., Cancela, A., Urréjola, S., Sánchez, A., Macroalgae: raw material for biodiesel production. Appl Energy 88 (2011), 3318–3323, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.11.027.
120. [120] Pereira, H., Barreira, L., Figueiredo, F., Custódio, L., Vizetto-Duarte, C., Polo, C., et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine macroalgae: Potential for nutritional and pharmaceutical applications. Mar Drugs 10 (2012), 1920–1935, 10.3390/md10091920.
121. [121] Alsufyani, T., Engelen, A.H., Diekmann, O.E., Kuegler, S., Wichard, T., Prevalence and mechanism of polyunsaturated aldehydes production in the green tide forming macroalgal genus Ulva (Ulvales, Chlorophyta). Chem Phys Lipids 183 (2014), 100–109, 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2014.05.008.
122. [122] El-Moneim, M.R., Afify, A., Shalaby, E.A., Shanab, S.M.M., Enhancement of biodiesel production from different species of algae. Grasas Y Aceites 61 (2010), 416–422, 10.3989/gya.021610.
123. [123] Suganya, T., Nagendra Gandhi, N., Renganathan, S., Production of algal biodiesel from marine macroalgae Enteromorpha compressa by two step process: optimization and kinetic study. Bioresour Technol 128 (2013), 392–400, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.10.068.
124. [124] Cancela, A., Maceiras, R., Urrejola, S., Sanchez, A., Microwave-assisted transesterification of macroalgae. Energies 5 (2012), 862–871, 10.3390/en5040862.
125. [125] Journal, I., Vol, P.S., Friedlander, M., Oceanographic, I., Israeli R & D activities in seaweed cultivation. Isr J Plant Sci 56 (2008), 15–28, 10.1560/IJPS.56.1-2.15.
126. [126] Korzen, L., Pulidindi, I.N., Israel, A., Abelson, A., Gedanken, A., Marine integrated culture of carbohydrate rich Ulva rigida for enhanced production of bioethanol. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 59251–59256, 10.1039/C5RA09037G.
127. [127] Wever, L., Krause, G., Buck, B.H., Lessons from stakeholder dialogues on marine aquaculture in offshore wind farms: perceived potentials, constraints and research gaps. Mar Policy 51 (2015), 251–259, 10.1016/j.marpol.2014.08.015.
128. [128] Florentinus, A., Hamelinck, C., de Lint, S., Iersel, S. van, Worldwide Potential of Aquatic Biomass. 2008, Ecofys, Utrecht.
129. [129] van der Burg, S., Stuiver, M., Veenstra, F., Bikker, P., López-Contreras, A.M., Palsra, A., et al. A triple P Rev feasibility Sustain Offshore Seaweed Prod North Sea, 2013.
130. [130] Baretta, J.W., Ebenhöh, W., Ruardij, P., The European regional seas ecosystem model, a complex marine ecosystem model. Netherlands. J Sea Res 33 (1995), 233–246, 10.1016/0077-7579(95)90047-0.
131. [131] Hou, X., Hansen, J.H., Bjerre, A.-B., Integrated bioethanol and protein production from brown seaweed Laminaria digitata. Bioresour Technol 197 (2015), 310–317, 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.091.
132. [132] Li, L., Zhang, Q., Huang, D., A Review of Imaging Techniques for Plant Phenotyping. Sensors 14 (2014), 20078–20111, 10.3390/s141120078.
133. [133] Golberg, A., Liberzon, A., Modeling of smart mixing regimes to improve marine biorefinery productivity and energy efficiency. Algal Res 11 (2015), 28–32, 10.1016/j.algal.2015.05.021.
134. [134] Fan, W., Chen, J., Pan, Y., Huang, H., Arthur Chen, C.T., Chen, Y., Experimental study on the performance of an air-lift pump for artificial upwelling. Ocean Eng 59 (2013), 47–57, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.11.014.
135. [135] Liang, N.K., Peng, H.K., A study of air-lift artificial upwelling. Ocean Eng 32 (2005), 731–745, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2004.10.011.
136. [136] Meng, Q., Wang, C., Chen, Y., Chen, J., A simplified CFD model for air-lift artificial upwelling. Ocean Eng 72 (2013), 267–276, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.07.006.
137. [137] Golberg, A., Environmental exergonomics for sustainable design and analysis of energy systems. Energy, 2015, 10.1016/j.energy.2015.05.053.
138. [138] Korzen, L., Abelson, A., Israel, A., Growth, protein and carbohydrate contents in Ulva rigida and Gracilaria bursa-pastoris integrated with an offshore fish farm. J Appl Phycol, 2015, 10.1007/s10811-015-0691-5.