Cognitive functioning in the first-episode of major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Neuropsychology

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 52-72

  Ahern, Elayne ^a   Semkovska, Maria ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIMERICK   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Cognitive deficits; First episode of depression; Meta analysis; Remission; Systematic review

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY; COGNITION; EFFECT SIZE; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; LEARNING; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MEMORY; PEER REVIEW; PERCEPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROCESSING SPEED; REMISSION; SHIFTING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TASK PERFORMANCE; WORD LIST DELAYED MEMORY; WORD LIST RECALL; ADULT; ATTENTION; COGNITION DISORDERS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; EPISODIC MEMORY; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; MALE; META ANALYSIS; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOMETRY; REACTION TIME; REFERENCE VALUE; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

ADULT; ATTENTION; COGNITION; COGNITION DISORDERS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY, EPISODIC; MOTOR SKILLS; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PSYCHOMETRICS; REACTION TIME; REFERENCE VALUES; VERBAL LEARNING;

EID: 84990989972     PISSN: 08944105     EISSN: 19311559     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/neu0000319     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. As, M., Dazzan, P., Fisher, H. L., Morgan, C., Morgan, K., Reichenberg, A., Pariante, C. M. (2011). Childhood trauma and cognitive function in first-episode affective and non-affective psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 129, 12-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.03.017
2. Airaksinen, E., Wahlin, A., Forsell, Y., & Larsson, M. (2007). Low episodic memory performance as a premorbid marker of depression: Evidence from a 3-year follow-up. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115, 458-465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00932.x
3. Albus, M., Hubmann, W., Wahlheim, C., Sobizack, N., Franz, U., & Mohr, F. (1996). Contrasts in neuropsychological test profile between patients with first-episode schizophrenia and first-episode affective disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 94, 87-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09830.x
4. American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
5. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
6. Austin, M. P., Mitchell, P., & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). Cognitive deficits in depression: Possible implications for functional neuropathology. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 200-206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/ bjp.178.3.200
7. Biostat. (n.d.). Comprehensive meta-analysis (Version 2.2) [Computer software]. Englewood, NJ: Author.
8. Bora, E., Harrison, B. J., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2013). Cognitive impairment in euthymic major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 43, 2017-2026. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S0033291712002085
9. Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex, England: Wiley. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470743386
10. Bortolato, B., Miskowiak, K. W., Köhler, C. A., Maes, M., Fernandes, B. S., Berk, M., & Carvalho, A. F. (2016). Cognitive remission: A novel objective for the treatment of major depression? BMC Medicine, 14, 9.
11. Chantiluke, K., Halari, R., Simic, M., Pariante, C. M., Papadopoulos, A., Giampietro, V., & Rubia, K. (2012). Fronto-striato-cerebellar dysregulation in adolescents with depression during motivated attention. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 59 - 67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.09.005
12. Chen, J., Yang, L. Q., Zhang, Z. J., Ma, W. T., Wu, X. Q., Zhang, X. R., Jia, T. (2013). The association between the disruption of motor imagery and the number of depressive episodes of major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150, 337-343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jad.2013.04.015
13. Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Wei, D., Wu, X., Fu, Q., Xu, F., Zhang, Z. (2015). Neurophysiological handover from MMN to P3a in first-episode and recurrent major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174, 173-179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.049
14. Cohen, J. D. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
15. Deary, I. J., Corley, J., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Houlihan, L. M., Marioni, R. E., Starr, J. M. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline. British Medical Bulletin, 92, 135-152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldp033
16. Desseilles, M., Balteau, E., Sterpenich, V., Dang-Vu, T. T., Darsaud, A., Vandewalle, G., Schwartz, S. (2009). Abnormal neural filtering of irrelevant visual information in depression. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 1395-1403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3341-08.2009
17. Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. J. (2009). Longitudinal assessment of neuropsychological function in major depression. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 1105-1117. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/ 00048670903279887
18. Dubovsky, S. L., & Dubovsky, A. N. (2002). Concise guide to mood disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
19. Ekman, M., Granström, O., Omérov, S., Jacob, J., & Landén, M. (2013). The societal cost of depression: Evidence from 10,000 Swedish patients in psychiatric care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150, 790-797. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.03.003
20. Evans, V. C., Chan, S. S., Iverson, G. L., Bond, D. J., Yatham, L. N., & Lam, R. W. (2013). Systematic review of neurocognition and occupational functioning in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychiatry, 3, 97-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/npy.13.3
21. Fossati, P., Harvey, P. O., Le Bastard, G., Ergis, A. M., Jouvent, R., & Allilaire, J. F. (2004). Verbal memory performance of patients with a first depressive episode and patients with unipolar and bipolar recurrent depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 137-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2003.08.002
22. Gorwood, P., Corruble, E., Falissard, B., & Goodwin, G. M. (2008). Toxic effects of depression on brain function: Impairment of delayed recall and the cumulative length of depressive disorder in a large sample of depressed outpatients. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 731-739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07040574
23. Hammar, A., & Ardal, G. (2009). Cognitive functioning in major depression- A summary. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 26.
24. Hammar, Å., Kildal, A. B., & Schmid, M. (2012). Information processing in patients with first episode major depression. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53, 445-449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12012
25. Hansson, P. B., Murison, R., Lund, A., & Hammar, Å. (2015). Cognitive functioning and cortisol profiles in first episode major depression. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56, 379-383. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ sjop.12230
26. Hasselbalch, B. J., Knorr, U., & Kessing, L. V. (2011). Cognitive impairment in the remitted state of unipolar depressive disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 134, 20-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.11.011
27. Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
28. Heo, M., Murphy, C. F., & Meyers, B. S. (2007). Relationship between the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale in depressed elderly: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 899-905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ JGP.0b013e318098614e
29. Higgins, J. P. T., & Green, S. (Eds.). (2008). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. West Sussex, England: Wiley. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470712184
30. Hill, S. K., Keshavan, M. S., Thase, M. E., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). Neuropsychological dysfunction in antipsychotic-naive first-episode unipolar psychotic depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 996-1003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.6.996
31. Hill, S. K., Reilly, J. L., Harris, M. S. H., Rosen, C., Marvin, R. W., Deleon, O., & Sweeney, J. A. (2009). A comparison of neuropsychological dysfunction in first-episode psychosis patients with unipolar depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 113, 167-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.020
32. Ilonen, T., Leinonen, K. M., Wallenius, E., Karlsson, H., Taiminen, T., Salokangas, R. K., Tuimala, P. (2000). Impaired Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in first-episode severe depression. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 54, 275-280. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 080394800448156
33. Inagaki, M., Matsuoka, Y., Sugahara, Y., Nakano, T., Akechi, T., Fujimori, M., Uchitomi, Y. (2004). Hippocampal volume and first major depressive episode after cancer diagnosis in breast cancer survivors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2263-2270. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2263
34. Karabekiroğ lu, A., Topçuoğlu, V., Gimzal Gönentür, A., & Karabekiroğlu, K. (2010). Executive function differences between first episode and recurrent major depression patients. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 21, 280-288.
35. Kaur, M., Battisti, R. A., Ward, P. B., Ahmed, A., Hickie, I. B., & Hermens, D. F. (2011). MMN/P3a deficits in first episode psychosis: Comparing schizophrenia-spectrum and affective-spectrum subgroups. Schizophrenia Research, 130, 203-209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.03.025
36. Kaymak, S. U., Demir, B., Sentürk, S., Tatar, I., Aldur, M. M., & Uluğ, B. (2010). Hippocampus, glucocorticoids and neurocognitive functions in patients with first-episode major depressive disorders. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 260, 217-223. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-009-0045-x
37. Kessing, L. V. (1998). Cognitive impairment in the euthymic phase of affective disorder. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1027-1038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291798006862
38. Kessler, R. C., & Walters, E. E. (1998). Epidemiology of DSM-III-R major depression and minor depression among adolescents and young adults in the National Comorbidity Survey. Depression and Anxiety, 7, 3-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1998)7:1=3::AIDDA23.0.CO;2-F
39. Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M., Paulauskas, S. L., Pollock, M., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood. II. A longitudinal study of the risk for a subsequent major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 643-649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/ archpsyc.1984.01790180013001
40. Kyte, Z. A., Goodyer, I. M., & Sahakian, B. J. (2005). Selected executive skills in adolescents with recent first episode major depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 995-1005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00400.x
41. Ladegaard, N., Larsen, E. R., Videbech, P., & Lysaker, P. H. (2014). Higher-order social cognition in first-episode major depression. Psychiatry Research, 216, 37-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.010
42. Lee, R. S., Hermens, D. F., Porter, M. A., & Redoblado-Hodge, M. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode Major Depressive Disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140, 113-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023
43. Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.133
44. Lewinsohn, P. M., Steinmetz, J. L., Larson, D. W., & Franklin, J. (1981). Depression-related cognitions: Antecedent or consequence? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 213-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.90.3.213
45. Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Bigler, E. D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
46. Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
47. Maalouf, F. T., Brent, D., Clark, L., Tavitian, L., McHugh, R. M., Sahakian, B. J., & Phillips, M. L. (2011). Neurocognitive impairment in adolescent major depressive disorder: State vs. trait illness markers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 133, 625-632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jad.2011.04.041
48. MacQueen, G. M., Campbell, S., McEwen, B. S., Macdonald, K., Amano, S., Joffe, R. T., Young, L. T. (2003). Course of illness, hippocampal function, and hippocampal volume in major depression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 1387-1392. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0337481100
49. Maeshima, H., Baba, H., Nakano, Y., Satomura, E., Namekawa, Y., Takebayashi, N., Arai, H. (2012). Residual memory dysfunction in recurrent major depressive disorder-A longitudinal study from Juntendo University Mood Disorder Project. Journal of Affective Disorders, 143, 84-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.05.033
50. McDermott, L. M., & Ebmeier, K. P. (2009). A meta-analysis of depression severity and cognitive function. Journal of Affective Disorders, 119, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.04.022
51. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151, 264-269, W64. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135
52. Motter, J. N., Pimontel, M. A., Rindskopf, D., Devanand, D. P., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Sneed, J. R. (2016). Computerized cognitive training and functional recovery in major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 184-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jad.2015.09.022
53. Mueller, T. I., Leon, A. C., Keller, M. B., Solomon, D. A., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., Maser, J. D. (1999). Recurrence after recovery from major depressive disorder during 15 years of observational follow-up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1000-1006.
54. Nandrino, J. L., Pezard, L., Posté, A., Réveillère, C., & Beaune, D. (2002). Autobiographical memory in major depression: A comparison between first-episode and recurrent patients. Psychopathology, 35, 335-340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000068591
55. Nebes, R. D., Butters, M. A., Mulsant, B. H., Pollock, B. G., Zmuda, M. D., Houck, P. R., & Reynolds, C. F., III. (2000). Decreased working memory and processing speed mediate cognitive impairment in geriatric depression. Psychological Medicine, 30, 679-691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291799001968
56. Papazacharias, A., & Nardini, M. (2012). The relationship between depression and cognitive deficits. Psychiatria Danubina, 24, S179-S182. Retrieved from http://www.hdbp.org/psychiatria_danubina/pdf/dnb_ vol24_sup1/dnb_vol24_sup1_179.pdf
57. Park, R. J., Goodyer, I. M., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Categoric overgeneral autobiographical memory in adolescents with major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 32, 267-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701005189
58. Park, R. J., Goodyer, I. M., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Effects of induced rumination and distraction on mood and overgeneral autobiographical memory in adolescent Major Depressive Disorder and controls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 996-1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00291.x
59. Plassman, B. L., Welsh, K. A., Helms, M., Brandt, J., Page, W. F., & Breitner, J. C. (1995). Intelligence and education as predictors of cognitive state in late life: A 50-year follow-up. Neurology, 45, 1446-1450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.45.8.1446
60. Porter, R. J., Bourke, C., & Gallagher, P. (2007). Neuropsychological impairment in major depression: Its nature, origin and clinical significance. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 115-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048670601109881
61. Porter, R. J., Bowie, C. R., Jordan, J., & Malhi, G. S. (2013). Cognitive remediation as a treatment for major depression: A rationale, review of evidence and recommendations for future research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 1165-1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004867413502090
62. Postma, A., Jager, G., Kessels, R. P., Koppeschaar, H. P., & van Honk, J. (2004). Sex differences for selective forms of spatial memory. Brain and Cognition, 54, 24-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00238-0
63. Reis, H. T., & Judd, C. M. (2014). Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
64. Reppermund, S., Ising, M., Lucae, S., & Zihl, J. (2009). Cognitive impairment in unipolar depression is persistent and non-specific: Further evidence for the final common pathway disorder hypothesis. Psychological Medicine, 39, 603-614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003329170800411X
65. Roca, M., López-Navarro, E., Monzón, S., Vives, M., García-Toro, M., García-Campayo, J., Gili, M. (2015). Cognitive impairment in remitted and non-remitted depressive patients: A follow-up comparison between first and recurrent episodes. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 25, 1991-1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.020
66. Rock, P. L., Roiser, J. P., Riedel, W. J., & Blackwell, A. D. (2014). Cognitive impairment in depression: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychological Medicine, 44, 2029-2040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713002535
67. Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1990). Are people changed by the experience of having an episode of depression? A further test of the scar hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 264-271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.99.3.264
68. Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2001). Meta-analysis: Recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 59 - 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.59
69. Schmid, M., & Hammar, Å. (2013a). Cognitive function in first episode major depressive disorder: Poor inhibition and semantic fluency performance. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 18, 515-530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2012.754748
70. Schmid, M., & Hammar, A. (2013b). A follow-up study of first episode major depressive disorder. Impairment in inhibition and semantic fluency-potential predictors for relapse? Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 633.
71. Snyder, H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 81-132. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028727
72. Taiminen, T., Jääskeläinen, S., Ilonen, T., Meyer, H., Karlsson, H., Lauerma, H., Salokangas, R. K. (2000). Habituation of the blink reflex in first-episode schizophrenia, psychotic depression and nonpsychotic depression. Schizophrenia Research, 44, 69-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(99)00140-1
73. The Cochrane Collaboration. (2014). Review manager (Version 5.3) [Computer software]. Copenhagen, Denmark: The Nordic Cochrane Centre.
74. Uher, R., Payne, J. L., Pavlova, B., & Perlis, R. H. (2014). Major depressive disorder in DSM-5: Implications for clinical practice and research of changes from DSM-IV. Depression and Anxiety, 31, 459-471. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.22217
75. Vanderhasselt, M. A., & De Raedt, R. (2009). Impairments in cognitive control persist during remission from depression and are related to the number of past episodes: An event related potentials study. Biological Psychology, 81, 169-176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.03.009
76. van der Meere, J., Borger, N. A., Pirila, S., & Sallee, F. (2011). Interference control in children with first episode major depression: A brief report. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 17, 96-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.533165
77. van Eijndhoven, P., van Wingen, G., Katzenbauer, M., Groen, W., Tepest, R., Fernández, G., Tendolkar, I. (2013). Paralimbic cortical thickness in first-episode depression: Evidence for trait-related differences in mood regulation. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1477-1486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12121504
78. van Wingen, G. A., van Eijndhoven, P., Tendolkar, I., Buitelaar, J., Verkes, R. J., & Fernández, G. (2011). Neural basis of emotion recog-nition deficits in first-episode major depression. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1397-1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710002084
79. Vinberg, M., Miskowiak, K. W., & Kessing, L. V. (2013). Impairment of executive function and attention predicts onset of affective disorder in healthy high-risk twins. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74, e747-e753. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12m08258
80. Vittengl, J. R., Clark, L. A., Kraft, D., & Jarrett, R. B. (2005). Multiple measures, methods, and moments: A factor-analytic investigation of change in depressive symptoms during acute-phase cognitive therapy for depression. Psychological Medicine, 35, 693-704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704004143
81. Wagner, S., Müller, C., Helmreich, I., Huss, M., & Tadíc, A. (2015). A meta-analysis of cognitive functions in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 5-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0559-2
82. Wekking, E. M., Bockting, C. L., Koeter, M. W., & Schene, A. H. (2012). Cognitive functioning in euthymic recurrently depressed patients: Relationship with future relapses and prior course of disease. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141, 300-307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.034
83. Wilson, D. B. (2001). Meta-analysis macros for SAS, SPSS and Strata [Effect size calculation macros]. Retrieved from http://mason.gmu.edu/ ~dwilsonb/ma.html
84. Withall, A., Harris, L. M., & Cumming, S. R. (2009). The relationship between cognitive function and clinical and functional outcomes in major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 39, 393-402. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708003620
85. Yang, X. H., Huang, J., Zhu, C. Y., Wang, Y. F., Cheung, E. F., Chan, R. C., & Xie, G. R. (2014). Motivational deficits in effort-based decision making in individuals with subsyndromal depression, first-episode and remitted depression patients. Psychiatry Research, 220, 874-882. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.056
86. Zhu, X., Wang, X., Xiao, J., Liao, J., Zhong, M., Wang, W., & Yao, S. (2012). Evidence of a dissociation pattern in resting-state default mode network connectivity in first-episode, treatment-naive major depression patients. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 611-617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.biopsych.2011.10.035
87. Zimmerman, M., McGlinchey, J. B., Posternak, M. A., Friedman, M., Attiullah, N., & Boerescu, D. (2006). How should remission from depression be defined? The depressed patient's perspective. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 148-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ appi.ajp.163.1.148