Electrochemical sensors and devices for heavy metals assay in water: The French groups' contribution

Frontiers in Chemistry

Volumn 2, Issue APR, 2014, Pages

  Pujol, Luca ^a,b,c   Evrard, David ^a,b   Groenen Serrano, Karine ^a,b   Freyssinier, Mathilde ^c   Ruffien Cizsak, Audrey ^c   Gros, Pierre ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ PAUL SABATIER   (France)

^b LABORATOIRE DE GÉNIE CHIMIQUE   (France)

^c ELTA   (France)

Author keywords

Carbon electrode; Chemically modified electrode; Electrochemical detection; Heavy metals; Ion selective electrode; Mercury free electrode; Polarography; Speciation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84987660505     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22962646     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00019     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Agra-Gutierrez, C., and Compton, R. G. (1998). Sono-adsorptive stripping voltammetry: Its application to the analysis of metals and organic compounds in aqueous media. Electroanalysis 10, 603-612. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4109(199807)10:9%3C603::AID-ELAN603%3E3.3.CO;2-D
2. Aragay, G., and Merkoçi, A. (2012). Nanomaterials application in electrochemical detection of heavy metals. Electrochim. Acta 84, 49-61. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.04.044
3. Arrigan, D. W. M. (1994). Voltammetric determination of trace metals and organics after accumulation at modified electrodes. Analyst 119, 1953-1966. doi: 10.1039/an9941901953
4. Ashrafi, A. M., Cerovac, S., Mudric, S., Guzsvany, V., Husakova, L., Urbanova, I., et al. (2014). Antimony nanoparticle-multiwalled carbon nanotubes composite immobilized at carbon paste electrode for determination of trace heavy metals. Sens. Actuators B 191, 320-325. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2013.08.087
5. Bard, A. J., and Faulkner, L. R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
6. Bessbousse, H., Nandhakumar, I., Decker, M., Barsbay, M., Cuscito, O., Lairez, D., et al. (2011). Functionalized nanoporous track-etched b-PVDF membrane electrodes for lead(II) determination by square wave anodic stripping voltammetry. Anal. Methods 3, 1351-1359. doi: 10.1039/c1ay05038a
7. Betelu, S., Parat, C., Petrucciani, N., Castetbon, A., Authier, L., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2007). Semicontinuous monitoring of cadmium and lead with a screen-printed sensor modified by a membrane. Electroanalysis 19, 399-402. doi: 10.1002/elan.200603722
8. Bobacka, J., Ivaska, A., and Lewenstam, A. (2008). Potentiometric ion sensors. Chem. Rev. 108, 329-351. doi: 10.1021/cr068100w
9. Bondavalli, P. (2010). Carbon nanotubes based transistors composed of single-walled carbon nanotubes mats as gas sensors: a review. C. R. Phys. 11, 389-396. doi: 10.1016/j.crhy.2010.06.002
10. Both Engel, A., Cherifi, A., Tingry, S., Cronu, D., Peigney, A., and Laurent, C. (2013). Enhanced performance of electrospun carbon fibers modified with carbon nanotubes: promising electrodes for enzymatic biofuel cells. Nanotechnology 24, 245402-245409. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/24/245402
11. Bourgeault, A., Ciffroy, P., Garnier, C., Cossu-Leguille, C., Masfaraud, J.-F., Charlatchka, R., et al. (2013). Speciation and bioavailability of dissolved copper in different freshwaters: comparison of modelling, biological and chemical responses in aquatic mosses and gammarids. Sci. Total Environ. 452-453, 68-77. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.097
12. Buica, G. O., Bucher, C., Moutet, J.-C., Royal, G., Saint-Aman, E., and Ungureanu, E. M. (2009a). Voltammetric sensing of mercury and copper cations at poly(EDTA-like) film modified electrode. Electroanalysis 21, 77-86. doi: 10.1002/elan.200804386
13. Buica, G. O., Ungureanu, E. M., Bucher, C., Moutet, J.-C., and Saint-Aman, E. (2009b). Poly(pyrrole-EDTA like) modified electrodes for mercury ions electroanalysis. J. Optoelectron. Adv. M. 11, 1152-1159.
14. Cali, C., Foix, D., Taillades, G., Siebert, E., Gonbeau, D., Pradel, A., et al. (2002). Copper(II) selective electrode based on chalcogenide materials: study of the membrane/solution interface with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 21, 3-8. doi: 10.1016/S0928-4931(02)00053-X
15. Callender, E. (2004). Heavy metals in the environment-historical trends. Treatise Geochem. 9, 67-105. doi: 10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/09161-1
16. Carn, F., Morcrette, M., Desport, B., and Backov, R. (2013). Lithium-ion battery electrode prepared by confining carbon nanotubes/V2O5 nanoribbons suspension in model air-liquid foams. Solid States Sci. 17, 134-139. doi: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2012.10.019
17. Caroli, S., Forte, G., Iamiceli, A. L., and Galoppi, B. (1999). Determination of essential and potentially toxic trace elements in honey by inductively coupled plasma-based techniques. Talanta 50, 327-336. doi: 10.1016/S0039-9140(99)00025-9
18. Chouteau, C., Dzyadevych, S., Chovelon, J. M., and Durrieu, C. (2004). Development of novel conductometric biosensors based on immobilised whole cell chlorella vulgaris microalgae. Biosens. Bioelectron. 19, 1089-1096. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2003.10.012
19. Chouteau, C., Dzyadevych, S., Durrieu, C., and Chovelon, J. M. (2005). A bi-enzymatic whole cell conductometric biosensor for heavy metal ions and pesticides detection in water samples. Biosens. Bioelectron. 21, 273-281. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2004.09.032
20. Commissariat général au développement durable. (2011). Bilan de présence des micropolluants dans les milieux aquatiques continentaux 2007-2009. Obs. Stat. 54, (Octobre 2011).
21. Commissariat général au développement durable. (2012). Chiffres clés de l'environnement, Edition 2012. Obs. Stat. (Septembre 2012).
22. Cox, J. A., Tess, M. E., and Cummings, T. E. (1996). Electroanalytical methods based on modified electrodes: a review of recent advances. Rev. Anal. Chem. 15, 173-223. doi: 10.1515/REVAC.1996.15.3.173
23. Crini, G. (2005). Recent developments in polysaccharide-based materials used as adsorbents in wastewater treatment. Prog. Polym. Sci. 30, 38-70. doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2004.11.002
24. Cugnet, C., Zaouak, O., Rene, A., Pecheyran, C., Potin-Gautier, M., and Authier, L. (2009). A novel microelectrode array combining screen-printing and femtosecond laser ablation technologies: development, characterization and application to cadmium detection. Sens. Actuators B 143, 158-163. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2009.07.059
25. Dennison, M. J., and Turner, A. P. F. (1995). Biosensors for environmental monitoring. Biotech. Adv. 13, 1-12. doi: 10.1016/0734-9750(94)00020-D
26. 2 biofuel cell. Electroanalysis 25, 685-695. doi: 10.1002/elan.201200405
27. Dernane, C., Zazoua, A., Kazane, I., and Jaffrezic-Renault, N. (2013). Cadmium-sensitive electrode based on tetracetone derivatives of p-tert-butylcalix[8]arene. Mat. Sci. Eng. C 33, 3638-3643. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2013.04.049
28. El Kaoutit, M. (2012). "Application of conducting polymers in electroanalysis, " in Aspects on Fundaments and Applications of Conducting Polymers. ed A. J. Motheo (Rijeka: InTech), 43-66.
29. El Tall, O., Jaffrezic-Renault, N., Sigaud, M., and Vittori, O. (2007). Anodic stripping voltammetry of heavy metals at nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond electrode. Electroanalysis 19, 1152-1159. doi: 10.1002/elan.200603834
30. Essi, M. M.-M. M., and Pradel, A. (2011a). Metal-sulphide ISE for copper(II) detection. Chalcogenide Lett. 8, 301-308.
31. Essi, M. M.-M. M., and Pradel, A. (2011b). Micro-electrode for copper ion detection in solution. Chalcogenide Lett. 8, 15-23.
32. Etienne, M., Bessiere, J., and Walcarius, A. (2001). Voltammetric detection of Cu(II) at a CPE containing an organically modified silica. Sens. Actuators B 76, 531-538. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00614-1
33. Etienne, M., Cortot, J., and Walcarius, A. (2007). Preconcentration electroanalysis at surfactant-templated thiol-functionalized silica thin films. Electroanalysis 19, 129-138. doi: 10.1002/elan.200603677
34. European Directive 2000/60/EC. Community action in the field of water policy. OJ L327/01.
35. European Directive 2008/105/EC. Directive on Environmental quality standards. OJ L348 annex II.
36. Fam, D. W. H., Palaniappan, A., Tok, A. I. Y., Liedberg, B., and Moochhala, S. M. (2011). A review on technological aspects influencing commercialization of carbon nanotube sensors. Sens. Actuators B 157, 1-7. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2011.03.040
37. Fatouros, N., Simonin, J.P., Chevalet, J., and Reeves, R. M. (1986). Theory of multiple square wave voltammetries. J. Electroanal. Chem. 213, 1-16. doi: 10.1016/0022-0728(86)80592-7
38. Feier, B., Floner, D., Cristea, C., Bodoki, E., Sandulescu, R., and Geneste, F. (2012). Flow electrochemical analyses of zinc by stripping voltammetry on graphite felt electrode. Talanta 98, 152-156. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.06.063
39. Feldmann, J., Salaun, P., and Lombi, E. (2009). Critical review perspective: elemental speciation analysis methods in environmental chemistry-moving towards methodological integration. Environ. Chem. 6, 275-289. doi: 10.1071/EN09018
40. Frew, J. E., and Hill, H. A. O. (1987). Electrochemical biosensors. Anal. Chem. 59, 933A-944A. doi: 10.1021/ac00142a720
41. Friedman, J. R., Ashton, W. B., and Rapoport, R. D. (1993). A review of the global emissions, transport and effects of heavy metals in the environment. Report PNL-SA-22394; Order No. DE93016817. Richland, WA.
42. Ganesan, V., and Walcarius, A. (2008). Ion exchange and ion exchange voltammetry with functionalized mesoporous silica materials. Mater. Sci. Eng. B 149, 123-132. doi: 10.1016/j.mseb.2007.11.022
43. Gao, C., Guo, Z., Liu, J.-H., and Huang, X.-J. (2012). The new age of carbon nanotubes: an updated review of functionalized carbon nanotubes in electrochemical sensors. Nanoscale 4, 1948-1963. doi: 10.1039/c2nr11757f
44. Gayet, J. C., Haouz, A., Geloso-Meyer, A., and Burstein, C. (1993). Detection of heavy metal salts with biosensors built with an oxygen electrode coupled to various immobilized oxidases and dehydrogenases. Biosens. Bioelectron. 8, 177-183. doi: 10.1016/0956-5663(93)85030-R
45. Ghimbeu, C. M., Raymundo-Pinero, E., Fioux, P., Beguin, F., and Vix-Guterl, C. (2011). Vanadium nitride/carbon nanotube nanocompsites as electrodes for supercapacitors. J. Mater. Chem. 21, 13268-13275. doi: 10.1039/c1jm11014d
46. Gilmartin, M. A. T., and Hart, J. P. (1995). Sensing with chemically and biologically modified carbon electrodes. A review. Analyst 120, 1029-1045. doi: 10.1039/an9952001029
47. Goncalves, M. D. L. S., Sigg, L., and Stumm, W. (1985). Voltammetric methods for distinguishing between dissolved and particulate metal ion concentrations in the presence of hydrous oxides. a case study on lead(II). Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 141-146. doi: 10.1021/es00132a005
48. Goubert-Renaudin, S., Etienne, M., Rousselin, Y., Denat, F., Lebeau, B., and Walcarius, A. (2009a). Cyclam-functionalized silica-modified electrodes for selective determination of Cu(II). Electroanalysis 21, 280-289. doi: 10.1002/elan.200804378
49. Goubert-Renaudin, S., Moreau, M., Despas, C., Meyer, M., Denat, F., Lebeau, B., et al. (2009b). Voltammetric detection of lead(II) using amide-cyclam-functionalized silica-modified carbon paste electrodes. Electroanalysis 21, 1731-1742. doi: 10.1002/elan.200904661
50. Guo, Z., Feng, F., Hou, Y., and Jaffrezic-Renault, N. (2005). Quantitative determination of zinc in milkvetch by anodic stripping voltammetry with bismuth film electrodes. Talanta 65, 1052-1055. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2004.08.060
51. Hamilton, J. W., Kaltreider, R. C., Bajenova, O. V., Ihnat, M. A., McCaffrey, J., Turpie, B. W., et al. (1998). Molecular basis for effects of carcinogenic heavy metals on inducible gene expression. Environ. Health Persp. Supp. 106, 1005-1015. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106s41005
52. Heitzmann, M., Basaez, L., Brovelli, F., Bucher, C., Limosin, D., Pereira, E., et al. (2005). Voltammetric sensing of trace metals at a poly(pyrrole-malonic acid) film modified carbon electrode. Electroanalysis 17, 1970-1976. doi: 10.1002/elan.200503325
53. Heitzmann, M., Bucher, C., Moutet, J.-C., Pereira, E., Rivas, B. L., Royal, G., et al. (2007). Complexation of poly(pyrrole-EDTA like) film modified electrodes: application to metal cations electroanalysis. Electrochim. Acta 52, 3082-3087. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2006.09.041
54. Heyrovsky, J. (1922). Elektrolysa se rtufovou kapkoyou kathodou. Chem. Listy 16, 256-264.
55. Heyrovsky, J. (1960). Trends in polarography. Science 132, 123-130. doi: 10.1126/science.132.3420.123
56. Hezard, T., Durand, G., Rakib, M., Viers, Ph., Roy, S., Guigues, N., et al. (2009). Metal on-line voltammetric analyzer for on-site monitoring of iron speciation in acid mine drainage waters: development and characterization. Electroanalysis 21, 1401-1410. doi: 10.1002/elan.200804538
57. Hezard, T., Fajerwerg, K., Evrard, D., Colliere, V., Behra, P., and Gros, P. (2012a). Gold nanoparticles electrodeposited on glassy carbon using cyclic voltammetry: application to Hg(II) trace determination. J. Electroanal. Chem. 664, 46-52. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.10.014
58. Hezard, T., Fajerwerg, K., Evrard, D., Colliere, V., Behra, P., and Gros, P. (2012b). Influence of the gold nanoparticles electrodeposition method on Hg(II) trace electrochemical detection. Electrochim. Acta 73, 15-22. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.10.101
59. Ijima, S. (1991). Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature 354, 56-58. doi: 10.1038/354056a0
60. Jacobs, C. B., Peairs, M. J., and Venton, B. J. (2010). Carbon nanotube based electrochemical sensors for biomolecules. Anal. Chim. Acta 662, 105-127. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.01.009
61. Järup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br. Med. Bull. 68, 167-182. doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldg032
62. Jothimuthu, P., Wilson, R. A., Herren, J., Haynes, E. N., Heineman, W. R., and Papautsky, I. (2011). Lab-on-a-chip sensor for detection of highly electronegative heavy metals by anodic stripping voltammetry. Biomed. Microdevices 13, 695-703. doi: 10.1007/s10544-011-9539-1
63. Jung, W., Jang, A., Bishop, P. L., and Ahn, C. H. (2011). A polymer lab chip sensor with microfabricated planar silver electrode for continuous and on-site heavy metal measurement. Sens. Actuators B 155, 145-153. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.11.039
64. Kenawy, I. M. M., Hafez, M. A. H., Akl, M. A., and Lashein, R. R. (2000). Determination by AAS of some trace heavy metal ions in some natural and biological samples after their preconcentration using newly chemically modified chloromethylated polystyrene-PAN ion-exchanger. Anal. Sci. 16, 493-500. doi: 10.2116/analsci.16.493
65. Khadro, B., Sikora, A., Loir, A.-S., Errachid, A., Garrelie, F., Donnet, C., et al. (2011). Electrochemical performances of B doped and undoped diamond-like carbon (DLC) films deposited by femtosecond pulsed laser ablation for heavy metal detection using square wave anodic stripping voltammetric (SWASV) technique. Sens. Actuators B 155, 120-125. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.11.034
66. Khadro, B., Vittori, O., and Jaffrezic-Renault, N. (2009). A new differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry miniaturized sensor system for detection of nickel and mercury in waters. Sensor Lett. 7, 829-832. doi: 10.1166/sl.2009.1157
67. Kolthoff, I. M. (1979). Application of macrocyclic compounds in chemical analysis. Anal. Chem. 51, 1R-22R. doi: 10.1021/ac50041a001
68. Kot, A., and Namiesnik, J. (2000). The role of speciation in analytical chemistry. Trends Anal. Chem. 19, 69-79. doi: 10.1016/S0165-9936(99)00195-8
69. Krulic, D., Fatouros, N., and Chevalet, J. (1990). Multiple square wave voltammetry: experimental verification of the theory. J. Electroanal. Chem. 287, 215-227. doi: 10.1016/0022-0728(90)80003-O
70. Le, T. S., Da Costa, P., Huguet, P., Sistat, P., Pichot, F., Silva, F., et al. (2012). Upstream microelectrodialysis for heavy metals detection on boron doped diamond. J. Electroanal. Chem. 670, 50-55. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2012.02.015
71. Legeai, S., Bois, S., and Vittori, O. (2006). A copper bismuth film electrode for adsorptive cathodic stripping analysis of trace nickel using square wave voltammetry. J. Electroanal. Chem. 591, 93-98. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2006.03.054
72. Legeai, S., Soropogui, K., Cretinon, M., Vittori, O., Oliveira, A. H. D., Barbier, F., et al. (2005). Economic bismuth-film microsensor for anodic stripping analysis of trace heavy metals using differential pulse voltammetry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 383, 839-847. doi: 10.1007/s00216-005-0083-9
73. Legeai, S., and Vittori, O. (2006). A Cu/Nafion/Bi electrode for on-site monitoring of trace heavy metals in natural waters using anodic stripping voltammetry: an alternative to mercury-based electrodes. Anal. Chim. Acta 560, 184-190. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.12.010
74. Li, X., Wang, Y., Yang, X., Chen, J., Fu, H., and Cheng, T. (2012). Conducting polymers in environmental analysis. Trends Anal. Chem. 39, 163-179. doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2012.06.003
75. Lin, Y.-W., Huang, C.-C., and Chang, H.-T. (2011). Gold nanoparticle probes for the detection of mercury, lead and copper ions. Analyst 136, 863-871. doi: 10.1039/c0an00652a
76. Lindqvist, O. (1995). Environmental impact of mercury and other heavy metals. J. Power Sources 57, 3-7. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(95)02229-5
77. Liu, Y., Su, G., Zhang, B., Jiang, G., and Yan, B. (2011). Nanoparticle-based strategies for detection and remediation of environmental pollutants. Analyst 136, 872-877. doi: 10.1039/c0an00905a
78. Louis, Y., Cmuk, P., Omanovic, D., Garnier, C., Lenoble, V., Mounier, S., et al. (2008). Speciation of trace metals in natural waters: the influence of an adsorbed layer of natural organic matter (NOM) on voltammetric behavior of copper. Anal. Chim. Acta 606, 37-44. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.11.011
79. Lu, D., Belle, J. L., Ninivin, C. L., Mabic, S., and Dimitrakopoulos, T. (2010). In situ electrochemical detection of trace metal vapors at bismuth doped carbon screen printed electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem. 642, 157-159. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2010.02.022
80. Luther III, G. W., and Ferdelman, T. G. (1993). Voltammetric characterization of iron(II) sulfide complexes in laboratory solutions and in marine waters and porewaters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 1154-1163. doi: 10.1021/es00043a015
81. Magnier, A., Billon, G., Louis, Y., Baeyens, W., and Elskens, M. (2011). On the liability of dissolved Cu, Pb and Zn in freshwater: optimization and application to the Deûle (France). Talanta 86, 91-98. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.08.010
82. Martin, S., and Griswold, W. (2009). Human health effects of heavy metals. Environ. Sci. Technol. Br. Cit. 15, 1-6.
83. McCreery, R. L. (2008). Advanced carbon electrode materials for molecular electrochemistry. Chem. Rev. 108, 2646-2687. doi: 10.1021/cr068076m
84. Mear, F., Essi, M., Pradel, A., Ribes, M., Sistat, P., and Huguet, P. (2005). "Detection of heavy ions in polluted waters: use of chalcogenide sensors and pre-concentration module, " in Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid Waste Technology and Management 21st (Philadelphia, PA), 582-591.
85. Mhatre, G. N. (1995). Heavy metal pollution in the biosphere and bioindicators and biomonitoring of heavy metals. Encycl. Environ. Control Technol. 8, 427-454.
86. Mohammadi, H., Amine, A., Cosnier, S., and Mousty, C. (2005). Mercury-enzyme inhibition assays with an amperometric sucrose biosensor based on a trienzymatic-clay matrix. Anal. Chim. Acta 543, 143-149. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.04.014
87. Moretto, L. M., Ugo, P., Lacasse, R., Champagne, G. Y., and Chevalet, J. (1999). Determination of methylmercury at Nafion coated electrodes by single and multiple pulse voltammetric techniques. J. Electroanal. Chem. 467, 193-202. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0728(98)00449-5
88. Morton, J., Havens, N., Mugweru, A., and Wanekaya, A. K. (2009). Detection of trace heavy metals ions using carbon nanotube-modified electrodes. Electroanalysis 21, 1597-1603. doi: 10.1002/elan.200904588
89. Munteanu, G., Munteanu, S., and Wipf, D. O. (2009). Rapid determination of zeptomole quantities of Pb2+ with the mercury monolayer carbon fiber electrode. J. Electroanal. Chem. 632, 177-183. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.04.014
90. Murray, R. W. (2008). Nanoelectrochemistry: metal nanoparticles, nanoelectrodes, and nanopores. Chem. Rev. 108, 2688-2720. doi: 10.1021/cr068077e
91. Murray, R. W., Ewing, A. G., and Durst, R. A. (1987). Chemically modified electrodes. Molecular design for electroanalysis. Anal. Chem. 59, 379A-390A.
92. Musarrat, J., Zaidi, A., Khan, M. S., Siddiqui, M. A., and Al-Khedhairy, A. A. (2011). Genotoxicity assessment of heavy metal-contaminated soils. Environ. Pollut. 20, 323-342. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-1914-9_14
93. Nagajyoti, P. C., Lee, K. D., and Sreekanth, T. V. M. (2010). Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: a review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 8, 199-216. doi: 10.1007/s10311-010-0297-8
94. Nasraoui, R., Floner, D., and Geneste, F. (2009). Analytical performances of a flow electrochemical sensor for preconcentration and stripping voltammetry of metal ions. J. Electroanal. Chem. 629, 30-34. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.01.024
95. Nasraoui, R., Floner, D., and Geneste, F. (2010a). Improvement in performance of a flow electrochemical sensor by using carbamoyl-arms polyazamacrocycle for the preconcentration of lead ions onto the electrode. Electrochem. Commun. 12, 98-100. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2009.10.045
96. Nasraoui, R., Floner, D., Paul-Roth, C., and Geneste, F. (2010b). Flow electroanalytical system based on cyclam-modified graphite felt electrodes for lead detection. J. Electroanal. Chem. 638, 9-14. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.10.028
97. Navratilova, Z., and Kula, P. (2003). Clay modified electrodes: present applications and prospects. Electroanalysis 15, 837-846. doi: 10.1002/elan.200390103
98. Nicolau, R., Louis, Y., Omanovic, D., Garnier, C., Mounier, S., and Pizeta, I. (2008). Study of interactions of concentrated marine dissolved organic matter with copper and zinc by pseudopolarography. Anal. Chim. Acta 618, 35-42. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.04.038
99. Ottakam Thotiyl, M. M., Basit, H., Sanchez, J. A., Goyer, C., Coche-Guerente, L., Dumy, P., et al. (2012). Multilayer assemblies of polyelectrolyte-gold nanoparticles for the electrocatalytic oxidation and detection of arsenic(III). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 383, 130-139. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2012.06.033
100. Parat, C., Authier, L., Aguilar, D., Companys, E., Puy, J., Galceran, J., et al. (2011a). Direct determination of free metal concentration by implementing stripping chronopotentiometry as the second stage of AGNES. Analyst 136, 4337-4343. doi: 10.1039/c1an15481h
101. Parat, C., Authier, L., Betelu, S., Petrucciani, N., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2007). Determination of labile cadmium using a screen-printed electrode modified by a microwell. Electroanalysis 19, 403-406. doi: 10.1002/elan.200603734
102. Parat, C., Betelu, S., Authier, L., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2006). Determination of labile trace metals with screen-printed electrode modified by a crown-ether based membrane. Anal. Chim. Acta 573-574, 14-19. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.04.081
103. Parat, C., Schneider, A., Castetbon, A., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2011b). Determination of trace metal speciation parameters by using screen-printed electrodes in stripping chronopotentiometry without deaerating. Anal. Chim. Acta 688, 156-162. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.12.034
104. Pereira, E., Rivas, B. L., Heitzmann, M., Moutet, J.-C., Bucher, C., Royal, G., et al. (2011). Complexing polymer films in the preparation of modified electrodes for detection of metal ions. Macromol. Symp. 304, 115-125. doi: 10.1002/masy.201150616
105. Pizeta, I., Billon, G., Omanovic, D., Cuculic, V., Garnier, C., and Fischer, J.-C. (2005). Pseudopolarography of lead(II) in sediment ad in interstitial water measured with a solid microelectrode. Anal. Chim. Acta 551, 65-72. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.07.009
106. Pohl, P. (2009). Determination of metal content in honey by atomic absorption and emission spectrometries. Trends Anal. Chem. 28, 117-128. doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2008.09.015
107. Prabhakar, S., Singh, A. K., and Pooni, D. S. (2012). Effect of environmental pollution on animal and human health: a review. Ind. J. Anim. Sci. 82, 244-255.
108. Rajabi, H. R., Roushani, M., and Shamsipur, M. (2013). Development of a highly selective voltammetric sensor for nanomolar detection of mercury ions using glassy carbon electrode modified with a novel ion imprinted polymeric nanobeads and multi-wall carbon nanotubes. J. Electroanal. Chem. 693, 16-22. doi: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2013.01.003
109. Riso, R. D., Le Corre, P., and Chaumery, C. J. (1997). Rapid and simultaneous analysis of trace metals (Cu, Pb, Cd) in seawater by potentiometric stripping analysis. Anal. Chim. Acta 351, 83-89. doi: 10.1016/S0003-2670(97)00352-8
110. Riso, R. D., Waeles, M., Garbarino, S., and Le Corre, P. (2004). Measurement of total selenium and selenium(IV) in seawater by stripping chronopotentiometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 379, 1113-1119. doi: 10.1007/s00216-004-2677-z
111. Riso, R. D., Waeles, M., Pernet-Coudrier, B., and Le Corre, P. (2006). Determination of dissolved iron(III) in estuarine and coastal waters by adsorptive stripping chronopotentiometry (SCP). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 385, 76-82. doi: 10.1007/s00216-006-0393-6
112. Rivas, B. L., Pooley, S. A., Brovelli, F., Pereira, E., Basaez, L., Puentes, J., et al. (2006). Synthesis and properties of styrene copolymers. Preparation of film-modified electrodes to detect Pb2+ ions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 100, 2380-2385. doi: 10.1002/app.23090
113. Rotureau, E. (2014). Analysis of metal speciation dynamics in clay minerals dispersion by stripping chronopotentiometry techniques. Colloids Surf. A 441, 291-297. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.09.006
114. Rouis, A., Echabaane, M., Sakly, N., Dumazet-Bonnamour, I., and Ben Ouada, H. (2013). Electrochemical analysis of a PPV derivative thin film doped with beta-ketoimine calix[4]arene in the dark and under illumination for the detection of Hg2+ ions. Synthetic Met. 164, 78-87. doi: 10.1016/j.synthmet.2013.01.005
115. Roy, S. P. (2010). Overview of heavy metals and aquatic environment with notes on their recovery. Ecoscan 4, 235-240.
116. Sanchez, A., and Walcarius, A. (2010). Surfactant-templated sol-gel silica thin films bearing 5-mercapto-1-methyl-tetrazole on carbon electrode for Hg(II) detection. Electrochim. Acta 55, 4201-4207. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2010.02.016
117. Sathiya, M., Prakash, A. S., Ramesha, K., Tarascon, J.-M., and Shukla, A. K. (2011). V2O5-anchored carbon nanotubes for enhanced electrochemical energy storage. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 16291-16299. doi: 10.1021/ja207285b
118. Sayen, S., Gerardin, C., Rodehuser, L., and Walcarius, A. (2003). Electrochemical detection of copper(II) at an electrode modified by a carnosine-silica hybrid material. Electroanalysis 15, 422-430. doi: 10.1002/elan.200390049
119. Sbartai, A., Namour, P., Errachid, A., Krejci, J., Sejnohova, R., Renaud, L., et al. (2012). Electrochemical boron-doped diamond film microcells micromachined with femtosecond laser: application to the determination of water framework directive metals. Anal. Chem. 84, 4805-4811. doi: 10.1021/ac3003598
120. Seck, S. M., Charvet, S., Fall, M., Baudrin, E., Lejeune, M., and Benlahsen, M. (2012). Detection of cadmium and copper cations using amorphous nitrogenated carbon thin film electrodes. Electroanalysis 24, 1839-1846. doi: 10.1002/elan.201200219
121. Silva, E. L., dos Santos Roldan, P., and Giné, M. F. (2009). Simultaneous preconcentration of copper, zinc, cadmium, and nickel in water samples by cloud point extraction using 4-(2-pyridylazo)-resorcinol and their determination by inductively coupled plasma optic emission spectrometry. J. Hazard. Mater. 171, 1133-1138. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.127
122. Singh, M., Holzinger, M., Biloivan, O., and Cosnier, S. (2013). 3D-nanostructured scaffold electrodes based on single-walled carbon nanotubes and nanodiamonds for high performance biosensors. Carbon 61, 349-356. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2013.05.015
123. Sladkov, V., David, F., and Fourest, B. (2003). Copper-mercury film electrode for cathodic stripping voltammetric determination of Se(IV). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 375, 300-305. doi: 10.1007/s00216-002-1672-5
124. Soldatkin, O. O., Kucherenko, I. S., Pyeshkova, V. M., Kukla, A. L., Jaffrezic-Renault, N., El'skaya, A. V., et al. (2012). Novel conductometric biosensor based on three-enzyme system for selective determination of heavy metal ions. Bioelectrochemistry 83, 25-30. doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2011.08.001
125. Suib, S. L. (2013). Some grand challenges in environmental chemistry. FCHEM 1, 1-2. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2013.00001
126. Superville, P.-J., Louis, Y., Billon, G., Prygiel, J., Omanovic, D., and Pizeta, I. (2011). An adaptable automatic trace metal monitoring system for on line measuring in natural waters. Talanta 87, 85-92. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.09.045
127. Svancara, I., Prior, C., Hocevar, S. B., and Wang, J. (2010). A decade with bismuth-based electrodes in electroanalysis. Electroanalysis 22, 1405-1420. doi: 10.1002/elan.200970017
128. Tanguy, V., Waeles, M., Vandenhecke, J., and Riso, R. D. (2010). Determination of ultra-trace Sb(III) in seawater by stripping chronopotentiometry (SCP) with a mercury film electrode in the presence of copper. Talanta 81, 614-620. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2009.12.050
129. Tchinda, A. J., Ngameni, E., Kenfack, I. T., and Walcarius, A. (2009). One-step preparation of thiol-functionalized porous clay heterostructures: application to Hg(II) binding and characterization of mass transport issues. Chem. Mater. 21, 4111-4121. doi: 10.1021/cm8024022
130. Tchinda, A. J., Ngameni, E., and Walcarius, A. (2007). Thiol-functionalized porous clay heterostructures (PCHs) deposited as thin films on carbon electrode: towards mercury(II) sensing. Sens. Actuators, B 121, 113-123. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2006.09.005
131. Tekaya, N., Saiapina, O., Ben Ouada, H., Lagarde, F., Ben Ouada, H., and Jaffrezic-Renault, N. (2013). Ultra-sensitive conductometric detection of heavy metals based on inhibition of alkaline phosphatase activity from Arthrospira platensis. Bioelectrochemistry 90, 24-29. doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2012.10.001
132. Templeton, D. M., Ariese, F., Cornelis, R., Danielsson, L.-G., Muntau, H., van Leeuven, H. P., et al. (2000). Guidelines for terms related to chemical speciation and fractionation of elements. Pure Appl. Chem. 72, 1453-1470. doi: 10.1351/pac200072081453
133. Terbouche, A., Djebbar, S., Benali-Baitich, O., and Hauchard, D. (2011). Complexation study of humic acids extracted from forest and sahara soils with zinc(II) and cadmium(II) by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) and conductimetric methods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 216, 679-691. doi: 10.1007/s11270-010-0562-2
134. Tonle, I. K., Letaief, S., Ngameni, E., Walcarius, A., and Detellier, C. (2011). Square wave voltammetric determination of lead(II) ions using a carbon paste electrode modified by a thiol-functionalized kaolinite. Electroanalysis 23, 245-252. doi: 10.1002/elan.201000467
135. Tonle, I. K., Ngameni, E., Njopwouo, D., Carteret, C., and Walcarius, A. (2003). Functionalization of natural smectite-type clays by grafting with organosilanes: physico-chemical characterization and application to mercury(II) uptake. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 5, 4951-4961. doi: 10.1039/b308787e
136. Tonle, I. K., Ngameni, E., and Walcarius, A. (2004). From clay-to organoclay-film modified electrodes: tuning charge selectivity in ion exchange voltammetry. Electrochim. Acta 49, 3435-3443. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2004.03.012
137. Tonle, I. K., Ngameni, E., and Walcarius, A. (2005). Preconcentration and voltammetric analysis of mercury(II) at a carbon paste electrode modified with natural smectite-type clays grafted with organic chelating groups. Sens. Actuators, B 110, 195-203. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.01.027
138. Tran, H. V., Piro, B., Reisberg, S., Tran, L. D., Duc, H. T., and Pham, M. C. (2013). Label-free and reagentless electrochemical detection of microRNAs using a conducting polymer nanostructured by carbon nanotubes: application to prostate cancer biomarker miR-141. Biosens. Bioelectron. 49, 164-169. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.05.007
139. Trojanowicz, M. (2003). Application of conducting polymers in chemical analysis. Mikrochim. Acta 143, 75-91. doi: 10.1007/s00604-003-0066-5
140. Ugo, P., Moretto, L. M., Rudello, D., Birriel, E., and Chevalet, J. (2001). Trace iron determination by cyclic and multiple square-wave voltammetry at nafion coated electrodes. application to pore-water analysis. Electroanalysis 13, 661-668. doi: 10.1002/1521-4109(200105)13:8/9<661::AID-ELAN661>3.0.CO;2-N
141. Urbanova, V., Bartos, M., Vytras, K., and Kuhn, A. (2010). Porous bismuth film electrodes for signal increase in anodic stripping voltammetry. Electroanalysis 22, 1524-1530. doi: 10.1002/elan.200970016
142. Vallee, B. L., and Ulmer, D. D. (1972). Biochemical effects of mercury, cadmium, and lead. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 41, 91-128. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.41.070172.000515
143. van Leeuven, H. P., and Town, R. M. (2002). Stripping chronopotentiometry at scanned deposition potential (SSCP). Part 1. Fundamental features. J. Electroanal. Chem. 536, 129-140. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0728(02)01212-3
144. Vashist, S. K., Zheng, D., Al-Rubeaan, K., Luong, J. H. T., and Sheu, F.-S. (2011). Advances in carbon nanotube based electrochemical sensors for bioanalytical applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 29, 169-188. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2010.10.002
145. Vieira, R. S., Oliveira, M. L. M., Guibal, E., Rodriguez-Castellon, E., and Beppu, M. M. (2011). Copper, mercury and chromium adsorption on natural and crosslinked chitosan films: an XPS investigation of mechanism. Colloids Surf. A 374, 108-114. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2010.11.022
146. Voccia, D., Laschi, S., Palchetti, I., Marrazza, G., and Mascini, M. (2012). A Hg-free sensor to control trace metal ionization used to treat pathogens in water distribution systems. Electroanalysis 24, 882-888. doi: 10.1002/elan.201100622
147. Walcarius, A. (1998). Analytical applications of silica-modified electrodes. a comprehensive review. Electroanalysis 10, 1217-1235.
148. Walcarius, A., and Bessiere, J. (1997). Silica-modified carbon paste electrode for copper determination in ammoniacal medium. Electroanalysis 9, 707-713. doi: 10.1002/elan.1140090910
149. Walcarius, A., Despas, C., and Bessiere, J. (1999a). Selective monitoring of Cu(II) species using a silica modified carbon paste electrode. Anal. Chim. Acta 385, 79-89. doi: 10.1016/S0003-2670(98)00403-6
150. Walcarius, A., Despas, C., Trens, P., Hudson, M. J., and Bessiere, J. (1998). Voltammetric in situ investigation of an MCM-41-modified carbon paste electrode. a new sensor. J. Electroanal. Chem. 453, 249-252. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0728(98)00203-4
151. Walcarius, A., Devoy, J., and Bessiere, J. (2000). Silica-modified electrode for the selective detection of mercury. J. Solid State Electrochem. 4, 330-336. doi: 10.1007/s100080000109
152. Walcarius, A., Etienne, M., Sayen, S., and Lebeau, B. (2003). Grafted silicas in electroanalysis: amorphous versus ordered mesoporous materials. Electroanalysis 15, 414-421. doi: 10.1002/elan.200390048
153. Walcarius, A., Luthi, N., Blin, J.-L., Su, B.-L., and Lamberts, L. (1999b). Electrochemical evaluation of polysiloxane-immobilized amine ligands for the accumulation of copper(II) species. Electrochim. Acta 44, 4601-4610. doi: 10.1016/S0013-4686(99)00181-4
154. Walcarius, A., and Sibottier, E. (2005). Electrochemically-induced deposition of amine-functionalized silica films on gold electrodes and application to Cu(II) detection in (hydro)alcoholic medium. Electroanalysis 17, 1716-1726. doi: 10.1002/elan.200503300
155. Wang, J. (1989). "Voltammetry following nanoelectrolytic preconcentration, " in Electroanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 16. ed Bard, A. J. (New York, NY: Marcel Dekker), 238-272.
156. Wang, J., Larson, D., Foster, N., Armalis, S., Lu, J., Rongrong, X., et al. (1995). Remote electrochemical sensor for trace metal contaminants. Anal. Chem. 67, 1481-1485. doi: 10.1021/ac00104a029
157. Wang, J., Lu, J., Hocevar, S. B., and Farias, P. A. M. (2000). Bismuth-coated carbon electrodes for anodic stripping voltammetry. Anal. Chem. 72, 3218-3222. doi: 10.1021/ac000108x
158. Wang, J., Lu, J., Hocevar, S. B., and Ogorevc, B. (2001). Bismuth-coated screen-printed electrodes for stripping voltammetric measurements of trace lead. Electroanalysis 13, 13-16. doi: 10.1002/1521-4109(200101)13:1%3C13::AID-ELAN13%3E3.0.CO;2-F
159. Wang, L., Wang, X., Shi, G., Peng, C., and Ding, Y. (2012). Thiacalixarene covalently functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes as chemically modified electrode material for detection of ultratrace Pb2+ ions. Anal. Chem. 84, 10560-10567. doi: 10.1021/ac302747f
160. Yaftian, M. R., Parinejad, M., and Matt, D. (2007). A lead-selective membrane electrode based upon a phosphorylated hexahomotrioxacalix[3]arene. J. Chin. Chem. Soc. (Taipei) 54, 1535-1542.
161. Yaftian, M. R., Rayati, S., Emadi, D., and Matt, D. (2006). A coated wire-type lead(II) ion-selective electrode based on a phosphorylated calix[4]arene derivative. Anal. Sci. 22, 1075-1078. doi: 10.2116/analsci.22.1075
162. Yasri, N. G., Halabi, A. J., Istamboulie, G., and Noguer, T. (2011). Chronoamperometric determination of lead ions using PEDOT:PSS modified carbon electrodes. Talanta 85, 2528-2533. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.08.013
163. Yue, W., Riehl, B. L., Pantelic, N., Schlueter, K. T., Johnson, J. M., Wilson, R. A., et al. (2012). Anodic stripping voltammetry of heavy metals on a metal catalyst free carbon nanotube electrode. Electroanalysis 24, 1039-1046. doi: 10.1002/elan.201200065
164. Zaouak, O., Authier, L., Cugnet, C., Castetbon, A., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2009). Bismuth-coated screen-printed microband electrodes for on-field labile cadmium determination. Electroanalysis 21, 689-695. doi: 10.1002/elan.200804465
165. Zaouak, O., Authier, L., Cugnet, C., Castetbon, A., and Potin-Gautier, M. (2010a). Electroanalytical device for cadmium speciation in waters. Part 1: development and characterization of a reliable screen-printed sensor. Electroanalysis 22, 1151-1158. doi: 10.1002/elan.200900474
166. Zaouak, O., Authier, L., Cugnet, C., Normandin, E., Champier, D., Rivaletto, M., et al. (2010b). Electroanalytical device for cadmium speciation in water. Part 2: automated system development and cadmium semicontinuous monitoring. Electroanalysis 22, 1159-1165. doi: 10.1002/elan.200900475
167. Zejli, H., Hidalgo-Hidalgo de Cisneros, J. L., Naranjo-Rodriguez, I., and Temsamani, K. R. (2007). Stripping voltammetry of silver ions at polythiophene-modified platinum electrodes. Talanta 71, 1594-1598. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2006.07.052
168. Zhang, Q. D., Piro, B., Noel, V., Reisberg, S., and Pham, M. C. (2011). Functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes for direct and selective electrochemical detection of DNA. Analyst 136, 1023-1028. doi: 10.1039/c0an00486c
169. Zlatev, R. K., Stoytcheva, M. S., Salas, B. V., Magnin, J.-P., and Ozil, P. (2006). Simultaneous determination of species by differential alternative pulses voltammetry. Electrochem. Commun. 8, 1699-1706. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2006.07.041