Living in denial: The application of human rights in the occupied territories

Israel Law Review

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 17-118

  Ben Naftali, Orna ^a   Shany, Yuval ^a  

^a College of Management ^*  (Israel)

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EID: 84979628961     PISSN: 00212237     EISSN: 20479336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021223700012413     Document Type: Article

References (317)

1. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 49, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (Hereinafter: ICESCR).
2. State of Israel Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Second Periodic Report, 3 Aug. 2001, para. 5–8, UN Doc. E/1990/6/Add.32 (2001).
3. State of Israel International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Second Periodic Report, 20 Nov. 2001, para. 8, UN Doc. CCPR/C/ISR/2001/2 (2001).
4. See also State of Israel Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Additional Information, 20 April 2001, para. 2–5, UN Doc. E/1989/5/Add.l4 (2001).
5. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 Dec. 1966, UN GA Res. 2200 A (XXI), GAOR, 21 Sess. Supp. No. 16 (A/6316) 52, UN Doc. A/CONF. 32/4. (Hereinafter: ICCPR).
6. Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Israel, 23 May 2003, para. 15, UN Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.90 (2003).
7. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Israel, 5 Aug. 2003, para. 11, UN Doc CCPR/CO/78/ISR (2003).
8. See Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Israel, 9 Oct. 2002, para. 2, UN Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.l95 (2002);
9. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Israel, 18 Aug. 1998, para. 10, UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add.93 (1998);
10. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Israel, 30 March 1998, para. 12, UN Doc. CERD/C/304/Add.45 (1998);
11. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Israel, 19 Aug. 1994, para. 74, UN Doc. A/49/18 (1994);
12. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: Israel, 12 August 1997, para. 170, UN Doc. A/52/38/Rev.l, Part II, para. 132–183 (1997).
13. See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Israel, 31 Aug. 2001, para. 11–12, UN Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.69 (2001).
14. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, G.A.O.R. Off. Rec, 36th Sess. Supp. No. 18 (A/36/88) (1981) 37–38.
15. See CERD Concluding Observation (1994)
16. CERD Concluding Observation (1998)
17. The only UN Treaty body before which the issue never explicitly arose is the Committee Against Torture. While Israel expressed the view that there were legal difficulties in applying the Convention in the Occupied Territories, it never formally challenged the authority of the Committee to receive information with relation to events taking place in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Committee Against Torture Summary Record of the Public Part of the 184th meeting: Israel, 28 April 1994, para. 22 UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.
18. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. res. 34/180, 34 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 46) at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (Hereinafter: CEDAW).
19. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10 Dec. 1984, G.A. res. 39/46. 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51), UN Doc. A/39/51, at 197 (1984), 23 I.L.M. (1984) 1027 (Hereinafter: CAT).
20. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 21 Dec. 1965, G.A. res. 2106A (XX), U.N. GAOR, 12th Sess. Supp. No. 14 (A/6014) 47, UN Doc. A/CONF. 32/4 (Hereinafter: CERD).
21. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Press Release: Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Takes Up Second Periodic Report of Israel, 15 May 2003 [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/4AA97AAA4FlAClD6C1256D28004675A8?opendocument];
22. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Summary record of the 39th meeting: Israel, 27 Aug. 2001, UN Doc. E/C.12/2001/SR.39 (2001);
23. State of Israel Responses to List of Issues Raised by the Working Group, Part Al (1998) (copy with authors).
24. See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Summary Record of the 31st meeting: Israel, 19 Nov. 1998, para. 38–39, UN Doc. E/C.12/1998/SR.31 (1998);
25. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Summary record of the 1251st meeting: Israel, 11 March 1998, para. 61, UN Doc.CERD/C/SR.1251(1998).
26. Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War, 18 Oct. 1907, Annex, 36 Stat. 2277; T.S. 539 (Hereinafter: Hague IV or Hague Regulations).
27. On the Israeli position See e.g. Meir Shamgar, “Legal Concepts and Problems of the Israeli Military Government - The Initial Stage” in Meir Shamgar ed. Military Government in the Territories Administered by Israel 1967–1980 (Jerusalem, The Harry Sacher Institute, 1982) 13, at 31–43;
28. Yehuda Zvi Blum, “The Missing Reversioner: Reflections on the Status of Judea and Samaria” (1968) 3 Is. L. R. 279;
29. Meir Shamgar, “The Observance of International Law in the Administered Territories” (1971) 1 Is. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 262, at 263;
30. Stacy Howlett, “Palestinian Private Property Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories” (2001) 34 Vand. J. ofTransnat'l L. 117, at 153.
31. This position received considerable criticism by international bodies and scholars alike. See e.g. G.A. Res. 32/91, U.N. GAOR, 32nd Sess. Supp. no. 45 (1977) 69;
32. G.A. Res. 33/113, U.N. GAOR, Supp. no. 45 (1978) 70;
33. G.A. Res. 44/40, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess. Supp. no. 49 (1989) 41;
34. S.C. Res. 237, U.N. SCOR, 1361st mtg. (1967) 5;
35. S.C. Res. 446, U.N. SCOR, 2134th mtg. (1979) 4;
36. S.C. Res. 605, U.N. SCOR, 2777th mtg. (1987) 4.
37. See also Adam Roberts, “Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli Occupied Territories Since 1967” (1990) 84 A.J.I.L. 44, at 69–70;
38. Richard A. Falk and Burns H. Wetson, “The Relevance of International Law to Israeli and Palestinian Rights in the West Bank and Gaza” in Emma Playfair, ed. International Law and the Administration of Occupied Territories (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1992) 125, at 130–136;
39. Yoram Dinstein, “The International Law of Belligerent Occupation and Human Rights” (1978) 8 Is. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 104, at 107;
40. Esther R. Cohen, Human Rights in the Israeli-Occupied Territories 1967–1982 (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1985) at 51–56;
41. Eyal Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993) at 109–110;
42. David Kretzmer, The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories (Albany, State University of New York Press, 2002) at 34;
43. Orna Ben-Naftali and Keren R. Michaeli, “We Must Not Make a Scarecrow of the Law: A Legal Analysis of the Israeli Policy of Targeted Killings” (2003) 36 (2) Cornell J. Int. L. 233, at 260–292;
44. Ardi Imseis, “The Fourth Geneva Convention and the Occupied Palestinian Territory” (2003) 44 Harv. Int'l L. J. 65.
45. Human Rights Committee Summary Record of the 1677th Meeting: Israel, 27 July 1998, para. 32, UN Doc. CCPR/C/SR.1677 (1998).
46. Human Rights Committee Summary Record of the 1675th meeting: Israel, 21 July 1998, para. 23, UN Doc. CCPR/C/SR.1675 (1998).
47. Jean Pictet, Humanitarian Law and the Protection of War Victims (Leiden, Henry Dunant Institute, 1975) 15;
48. Robert Colb, “The Relationship Between International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law: A Brief History of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1949 Geneva Conventions” (1998) 38 Int. Rev. Red Cross 409, at 410–411.
49. Richard Quentin-Baxter, “Human Rights and Humanitarian Law - Confluence or Conflict” (1985) 9 Australian Y.B. Int. L. 94, at 97.
50. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 Dec. 1948, Preamble para. 2, 4, G.A. res. 217A (111), U.N. Doc A/810 at 71 (1948) (Hereinafter: UDHR).
51. See generally, Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper, “Humanitarian Law and Human Rights” (1979) Acta Juridica 193;
52. Yoram Dinstein, “Human Rights in Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law” in Theodor Meron, ed. Human Rights in International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984) 345, at 350–51 (This lex specialis argument applies, according to Dinstein, to most human rights).
53. See Theodor Meron, “The Humanization of Humanitarian Law” (2000) 94 A.J.I.L. 239, at 242–243.
54. On the origins of IHL see generally, G.P. Noone, “The History and Evolution of the Law of War Prior to World War II” (2000) 47 Naval Law Review 176;
55. Chrisaf Jochnick and Roger Normand, “The Legitimation of Violence: A Critical History of the Laws of War” (1994) 35 Harv. Int'l L.J. 49.
56. On the origins of HR law see generally, Jerome J. Shestack, “The Jurisprudence of Human Rights” in Theodor Meron, ed. 1 Human Rights in International Law: Legal and Policy Issues (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984) 69, at 75–98.
57. Louise Doswald-Beck and Sylvain Vite, “International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law” (1993) 33 Int. Rev. Red Cross 94, at 95–100.
58. See generally, Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper, “The Relationship between Human Rights Regime and the Law of Armed Conflicts,” (1971) 1 Is. Y. B. Hum. Rts. 191;
59. Alex G. Peterson, “Order Out of Chaos: Domestic Enforcement if the Law of Internal Armed Conflicts” (2002) 171 Mil. L. Rev. 1.
60. Michael J. Kelly, Peace Operations: Tackling the Military, Legal and Policy Challenges (Canberra, Australian Govt. Pub. Service, 1997) 6.8–6.9;
61. Yoram Dinstein, “The International Law of Inter-State Wars and Human Rights” (1977) 7 Isr. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 139, at 153;
62. See generally, Rene Provost, International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002) 18–54;
63. On the distinction between first and second generation rights, see e.g. Asbjorn Eide and Allan Rosas, “Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Universal Challenge” in Asbjor Eide, Catarina Krause and Allan Rosas, eds. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Textbook (Dordrecht, M. Nijhoff Publishers, 2nd edition, 2001) 3.
64. On third generation rights, see e.g. Philip Alston, “A Third Generation of Solidarity Rights: Progressive Development or Obfuscation of International Human Rights Law?” (1982) 29 Neth. Int'l L. Rev. 307.
65. See Dieter Fleck ed. The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999) 9.
66. See Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 Aug. 1948, art. 2, 75 U.N.T.S. 31 (Hereinafter: Geneva I);
67. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 Aug. 1948, art. 2, 75 U.N.T.S. 85 (Hereinafter: Geneva II);
68. Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 Aug. 1948, art. 2, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 (Hereinafter: Geneva III);
69. See also Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and
70. relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, art. 1, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 (Hereinafter: Protocol I).
71. Bertrand G. Rachman, “The Role of International Bodies in the Implementation and Enforcement of Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law in Non-International Armed Conflicts” (1983) 33 Am. U. L. Rev. 99, at 105–110;
72. Oren Gross, “Yale J. Int'l L. 437.
73. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 (Hereinafter: Vienna Convention).
74. See e.g. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Summary Record of the 1250th meeting: Israel, 9 March 1998, para. 4, UN Doc. CERD/C/SR. 1250 (1998).
75. See e.g. Dietrich Schindler, “Human Rights and Humanitarian Law: Interrelationship of the Laws” (1982) 31 Am. U. L. Rev. 935, at 939;
76. Egon Schwelb, “Civil and Political Rights - The International Measures of Implementation” (1968) 62 A. J. I. L. 827, at 863;
77. Henri Meyrowitz, “Le Droit de la guerre et les droit de l'homme” (1972) 88 Revue de droit public et de la science politique en France et a. I'etranger 1059, at 1087.
78. Cf. Bankovic v. Belguim, 123 I.L.R. (2003) 94, at para. 62 (judgment issued in 2001)
79. See e.g. Louis Henkin, “Introduction” in Louis Henkin, ed. The International Bill of Rights: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981) 5;
80. Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics, Values and Functions (Dortrecht, M. Nijhoff, 1995) 173;
81. Michael Ignatieff, Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2001) 55;
82. Anne-Marie Burley, “The Alien Tort Statute and the Judiciary Act of 1789: A Badge of Honor” (1989) 83 A.J.I.L. 461, at 490;
83. Steve Charnovitz, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 50 and the Challenge of Global Markets: The Globalization of Economic Human Rights” (1999) 25 Brooklyn J. Int'l L. 113, at 118–119.
84. Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights (2nd ed. Boulder, Westview Press, 1998) 4;
85. Christian M. Cerna, “A Small Step Forward for Human Rights: The Creation of the Post of the High Commissioner for Human Rights” (1995) 10 Am. U.J. Int'l L. Pol'y. 1265, at 1266;
86. David Matas, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Fifty Years Later” (2000) 46 McGill L. J.l 203, at 206;
87. Robert D. Sloan, “Outrelativizing Relativism: A Liberal Defense of the Universality of International Human Right” (2001) 34 Vand. J. Transna'l L. 527, at 544.
88. See Hannah Arendt, “The Decline of the Nation State and the End of the Rights of Man” in The Origins of Totalitarianism (Clevland, World Publishing Co. 1973) 267;
89. Christine Biancheria, “Restoring the Right to Have Rights: Statelessness and Alienage Jurisdiction in Light ofAbu-Zeineh v. Federal Laboratories Inc.” (1996) 11 Am. U.J. Int'l L, Pol'y 195, at 200–203.
90. See also generally, Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law (2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon, 1996) 231–234.
91. Louis Henkin, The Age of Rights (New York, Columbia University Press, 1996) 17;
92. Louis Henkin, “That'S' Word: Sovereignty and Globalization and Human Rights et cetera” (1999) 68 Fordham L. R. 1, at 7;
93. Lori Fisler Damrosch, “Politics Across Borders: Nonintervention and Non-forcible Influence Over Domestic Affairs” (1989) 83 A.J.I.L. 1, at 36–37;
94. Guyora Binder, “Cultural Relativism and Cultural Imperialism in Human Rights Law” (1999) 5 Buf. Hum. Rts. L. Re. 211, at 221.
95. See e.g. Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies, 4 July 1776 (“That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed”).
96. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, C.B. Macpherson, ed. (Indianapolis, Hackett, 1980) 66;
97. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, On the Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (Hammondsworth, Penguin 1968), 74–78.
98. Article 29 reads: “Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
99. See e.g. Special Rapporteur (M.A. Martinez) Final Report on Human Rights and Responsibilites UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/105 (2003) 12–17, 20–26;
100. Inter-Action Council A Universal Declaration of Human Responsibilities (1997)
101. reprinted in Ben Saul, “In the Shadow of Human Rights: Human Duties, Obligations and Responsibilities,” (2001) 32 Colum. Human Rights L. Rev. 565, at 618–622.
102. See discussion in Saul, Colum. Human Rights L. Rev. passim;
103. Somtow Sucharitcul, “A Multi-Dimensional Concept of Human Rights in International Law” (1987) 62 Notre Dame L. Rev. 305, at 312–313.
104. Cf. Comm. R.12/52 Lopez fiurgos v. Uruguay, UN. Doc. A/36/40 (1981) 176 (Individual Opinion, Tomuschat);
105. Comm.56/1979 Casariego v. Uruguay, UN Doc. CCPR/C/OP/1 (1984) 92 (Views adopted in 1981 ((Individual Opinion, Tomuschat).
106. See e.g. Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) 2001 I.C.J. (Not yet published), at para. 37;
107. Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict. 1996 (I) I.C.J. 66, 75;
108. Kasikili ISedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia) 1999 (II) I.C.J. 1045, 1059, 1075;
109. Golder v. U.K. 18 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. AX 1975), at para. 29.
110. See generally Philippe Sands, “Treaty, Custom and the Cross-fertilization of International Law” (1998) 1 Yale H.R. & Dev. L.J. 85.
111. The delegation relied specifically upon Cyprus v. Turkey, App. Nos. 6780/74, 6950/75, 2 Eur. Comm'n H.R. Dec. & Rep. (1975) 125, 136.
112. For discussion of the case, see infra. For additional support of the Israeli position regarding the suitability of the actual control test and its application to the Occupied Territories, see Geoffrey R. Watson, The Oslo Accords: International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Agreements (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000) 175–176.
113. Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, 28 Sept. 1995
114. art. XDC, 36 I.L.M. (1997) 551;
115. Wye River Memorandum, 23 Oct. 1998, art. 11(c)(4) 37 I.L.M. (1998) 1251.
116. Richard Baxter, “Some Existing Problems in Humanitarian Law” in The Concept of International Armed Conflict: Future Outlook (Brussels, 1974) 1, at 2. [see details in http://lms01.harvard.edU/F/5VUElGBMSSHLE83SAHNEllVUP4VX4VUXKEG59 VNT2TlRM3TSAK-01151?func=rull-set-set&set_number=100983&set_entry=000032& format=999 - the original paper was from 1974, it was reprinted in 1975]
117. For a clear articulation of this paradigm, see Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 4 Nov. 1950, art. 15, 213 U.N.T.S. 222 (Hereinafter European HR Convention);
118. American Convention on Human Rights, art. 27, 27 Nov. 1969, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123 (Hereinafter: I/A HR Convention).
119. Resolution I. (Respect and Enforcement of Human Rights in the Occupied Territories), Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, 13 May 1968, UN. Doc. A/Conf.32/41
120. reprinted in (1969) 63 A.J.l.L. 677 (resolution adopted on 7 May 1968). While UN Resolutions are generally non-binding, an accumulation of numerous resolutions, especially if adopted by large margins could be reflective of customary international law and aid in the interpretation of international norms.
121. See e.g. J.M. Spectar “Pay Me Fairly, Kathie Lee! The WTO, The Right to a Living Wage, and a Proposed Protocol” (2000) 20 N.Y.L. Sch. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 61, 76–79.
122. UN Secretary-General, Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflicts, UN Doc. A/7720 (1969);
123. UN Secretary-General, Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflicts, UN Doc. A/8052 (1970). The UN General Assembly's Third Committee discussed both reports. Report of the Third Committee, UN G.A.O.R. 25 Sess. Annex I (A/8178X1970) 47.
124. GA Res. 2674 (1970) in D.J. Djonovich (ed.), XIII United Nations Resolutions - Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly (1970–197 lKDobbs Ferry, 1976) 291–292.
125. Slightly revised versions of the same clause appear in the Hague IV (1907);
126. Protocol I, art. 1(2); [see http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1899b.htm; http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1907c.htm; 8 June 1977, preamble, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (Hereinafter: Protocol II).
127. For discussion, see Theodor Meron, “The Martens Clause, Principles of Humanity, and Dictates of Public Conscience” (2000) 94 A. J. I. L. 78.
128. Another famous formulation, adopted by the ICJ, highlights that the humanitarian constraints on the use offeree are “elementary considerations of humanity”. Corfu Channel (UK v. Alb.), 1949 I.C.J. 4, 22.
129. See Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT), Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis (London Agreement), 8 Aug. 1945, 82 U.N.T.S. 280:
130. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 Dec. 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277.
131. The article reads: “The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in all circumstances”.
132. Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua v. U.S. 1986 I.C.J. 14, 114.
133. Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and the Sick in Armies in the Field, 6 July 1906, art. 24, 11 L.N.T.S. 440.
134. The 1929 Prisoners of War Convention prohibited Reprisals against POWs, 27 July, 1929, 118 L.N.T.S. 343);
135. See generally, Dietrich Schindler, “Human Rights and Humanitarian Law” (1982) 31 A. U. L. Rev. 935;
136. See Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts, art. 5, G.A. res. 54/263, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess. Annex I, Supp. No. 49, U.N. Doc. A/54/49 (2000).
137. Declaration of Minimum Humanitarian Standards, 2 Dec. 1990, U.N.Doc.E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/55 (1990) (adopted by the Meeting of Experts at Human Rights Institute of Abo Akademi, Turku, Finland).
138. See e.g. Report of the Secretary General on Fundamental Standards of Humanity, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2001/91 (2001).
139. Article 7 of the ICC statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 (1998) (Hereinafter ICC Statute) defines crimes against humanity.
140. see Yuval Shany, “Israeli Counter-Terrorism Measures: Are They ‘Kosher’ under International Law?” in Michael N. Schmitt ed. Terrorism and International Law: Challenges and Responses (San Remo, International Institute of Humanitarian Law, 2003) 96, at 100–101.
141. reprinted in (1969) 9 Int. Rev. Red Cross 343.
142. Jean Pictet, ed. Commentary on the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva ConventionNGenevaL, 1960) 373.
143. See e.g. GA Res. 38/101 Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in El Salvador, UN G.A.O.R. 38th Sess. Supp. No. 47 (A/38/47X1984) 204;
144. GA Res. 39/119 Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in El Salvador, UN G.A.O.R. 39lh Sess. Supp. No. 51 (A/39/51X1985) 211;
145. GA Res. 46/136 Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, UN G.A.O.R. 46th Sess. Supp. No. 49 (A/46/49X1992) 207;
146. GA Res. 46/136 Situation of Human Rights in Kuwait under Iraqi Occupation, UN G.A.O.R. 46th Sess. Supp. No. 49 (A/46/49X1992) 207;
147. GA Res. 49/10 The Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, UN G.A.O.R. 49lh Sess. Supp. No. 49 (A/49/49X1992) 9;
148. SC Res. 757 (1992), UN S.C.O.R. 47th Sess. (S/INF/48/1992) 13.
149. See generally, Michael J. Dennis, “The Fifty Second Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights” (1997) 91 A. J.I.L. 167, at 167–169;
150. Daniel O'Donnell, “Trends in the Application of International Humanitarian Law by the United Nations Human Rights Mechanisms” (1998) 38 Int. Rev. Red Cross 481.
151. See Theodor Meron, “The Protection of the Human Person under Human Rights Law and Humanitarian Law” (1992) 91(1) Bulletin of Human Rights - Center for Human Rights, Geneva 33, 40.
152. See Aristidis S. Calogeropoulos-Stratis, “Droit Humanitaire - Droit de l'Homme et Victimes des Conflits Armes” in Christopher Swinarski, ed. Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet (Geneva, 1984) 655, 657;
153. See generally on this institutional argument, John Quigley, “The Relations Between Human Rights and the Law of Belligerent Occupation: Does An Occupied Population Have a Right to Freedom of Assembly and Expression?” (1989) 12 B.C. Int.&Comp. L. Rev. 1, at 27–28. It should be realized however that the ability of human rights monitoring bodies to apply IHL is constrained by lack of expertise and the narrowness of their mandate.
154. Dale Stephens, “Human Rights and Armed Conflict” (2001) 4 Yale H.R. & Dev. L.J.I, at 8.
155. see Human Rights Committee, General Comment General Comment 29, States of Emergency (article 4), U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.l/Add.ll (2001).
156. See The Greek Case (Denmark, v. Greece), App. Nos. 3321, 2233, 3344/67 12 Y.B. Eur. Con. Hum. Rts. (1969) 72.
157. See also Special Rapporteur (L. Despouy), Tenth Annual Report on Human Rights and States of Emergency, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/19 (1997) para. 82;
158. See generally UN Secretary-General, Report on the Minimum Humanitarian Standards, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/87 (1998) para. 58.
159. European HR Convention, art. 15; I/A HR Convention, Art. 27.
160. See Eyal Benvenisti, “The Applicability of Human Rights Conventions to Israel and to the OccupiedTerritories” (1992) 26 (4) Isr. L. Rev. 2, at 29 (“The adaptability of these instruments to crisis situations attest that their framers conceived them as applicable to wartime as well”).
161. A notion already arrived at by John Stuart Mill - J.S. Mill On Liberty, (Hammondsworth, 1974) (1861) 120–122 - implying that the process by which the liberal state is realized is also the process by which it disappears: the laissez faire state obliterates itself in a process directed at realizing its principles and the socialist, or welfare, aspect of the democratic liberal state becomes the condition of possibility for its very existence.
162. See generally Alan Ryan, “Liberalism” in Roert E. Goodin and Pilip Pettit, eds. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy (Oxford, Blackwell, 1995) 291.
163. See generally, Denise Plattner, “The Protection of Children in International Humanitarian Law” (1984) 24 Int. Rev. Red Cross 140;
164. Ilene Cohn, “The Convention on the Rights of the Child: What it Means for Children in War” (1991) 3 Int. J. Refugee L. 100.
165. Theodor Meron Human Rights in International Strife: Their International Protection (Cambridge, Grotius Pub. 1987) 17–22.
166. See Theodor Meron and Allan Rosas, “A Declaration of Minimum Humanitarian Standards” (1991) 85 A.J.I.L. 373.
167. Yuval Shany, The Competing Jurisdictions of International Courts and Tribunals (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003) 71–72;
168. Shabtai Rosenne, “The Perplexities of Modern International Law” (2002) 291 Receuil des Cours 9, at 43.
169. Ian McTaggart Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (2nd ed. Manchester, Grotius Publication, 1984) 96–98.
170. But see Las Palermas, Judgment of 4 Feb. 2000, para. 33 (preliminary objectionsXI/A CHRXHuman rights court is incompetent to examine compliance with the Geneva Conventions).
171. “The Court observes that the protection of the ICCPR does not cease in times of war, except by the operation of Article 4 of the Covenant whereby certain provisions may be derogated from in times of national emergency”.
172. See Louise Doswald-Beck, “International Humanitarian Law and the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons” (1997) 316 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 35, at 51;
173. But see Thomas Buergenthal, “To Respect and to Ensure: State Obligations and Permissible Derogations” in Louis Henkin, ed. The International Bill of Human Rights (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981) 72, at 77 (arguing that in situations of belligerent occupation the occupied territory should be deemed as part of the State party's ‘territory’ under article 2(D).
174. Bryan A. Garner ed. Black's Law Dictionary (St. Paul, West Group, seventh ed. 1999) 855.
175. see Michael J. Kelly, “Responsibility for Public Security in Peace Operations” in Helen Durham and Timothy L.H. McCormack, eds. The Changing Face of Conflict and the Efficacy of International Humanitarian Law (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1999) 141, at 154;
176. Adam Roberts, “What is a Military Occupation?
177. (1984) 55 B.Y.B.I.L. 249, at 300–301;
178. Eyal Benvenisti, “Responsibility for the Protection of Human Rights under the Interim Israeli Palestinians Agreements” (1994) 28 Is. L. Rev. 297, at 307–309.
179. International Law Commission, Commentary on the Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (New York, 2001) 227–228
180. See e.g. Decree on Local Councils Administration (Judea and SamariaXNo. 892), 1991;
181. See e.g. Amnesty International, Israel and the Occupied Territories: The Issue of Settlements must be Addressed according to International Law (London, 2003) http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE 150852003? open&of=ENG-370.
182. Anthony Aust, Modern Treaty Law and Practice (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000) 162–63.
183. Special Rapporteuer (Humphrey Waldock) Sixth Report on the Law of Treaties, UN Doc. A/CN.4/186 and Add. 1–7 (1966), 1966 Y.B. Int'l L. Comm. 51, at 64–66.
184. ILC Final Draft Commentary in Richard G. Wetzel and Dietrich Rauschning, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties - Travaux Preparatoires (Frankfurt, 1978) 225.
185. United Nations 1 United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties - Official Records (New York, 1969) 429 (Statement by Sinclair (UK)). It is interesting to note that Sinclair himself later expressed the view that the presumption of territoriality would not encompass humanitarian treaties intended to be of world-wide applicability. Sinclair.
186. The discussion that took place before the Human Rights Commission and the 3ri Committee of the General Assembly focused on whether to add or delete the reference to territory, in addition to the reference to jurisdiction. At the end of the day, the view that prevailed was that failure to mention territory might be interpreted as requiring States to ensure the human rights of their nationals abroad in ways other than through regular diplomatic channels. Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the 'Travaux Preparatoires of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Dordecht, M. Nijhoff, 1987) 53–55. There is no indication that the delegates considered the application of the Covenant to extra-territorial official State acts or to situations of belligerent occupation.
187. Theodor Meron, “The 1994 U.S. Action in Haiti: Extraterritoriality of Human Rights Treaties” (1995) 89 A.J.I.L. 78, at 79–81;
188. Jochen Aber Frowein, “The Relationship between Human Rights Regimes and Regimes of Belligerent Occupation” (1998) 28 Is. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 1, at 6;
189. Dominic McGoldrick, “The Extra-Territorial Application of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” in F. Coomnas and M. Kamminga, eds. The Extra-Territorial Application of Human Rights Treaties (Antwerp, forthcoming in 2004). For the related practice and views of the HRC, see infra.
190. Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 59
191. U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 302 (hereinafter OP).
192. See also P.R. Ghandhi, The Human Rights Committee and the Right of Individual Communication (Aldershot, Hants, England, 1998) 129.
193. Vienna Convention, art. 31(1).
194. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 1 (Reporting by State Parties), UN Doc, E/1989/22 (1989).
195. Draft Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 14, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/105 (1996).
196. See e.g. Johan J. Paust, “Customary International Law and Human Rights Treaties are Law of the United States” (1999) 20 Mich. J. Int'l L. 301, at 323, n. 106;
197. Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (Kehl, Germany, Engel, 1993) XIX;
198. Theodor Meron, Human Rights Law-Making in the United Nations (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1986) 85–86.
199. But see, Michael P. Scharf, “Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was There a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti?” (1996) 31 Texas Int'l L.J. 1, at 26 (The idea of authoritative weight to be attributed to HRC pronouncements is an ‘overstretch’).
200. Dominic McGoldrick, The Human Rights Committee: Its role in the Development of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1994) (paperback reprint 1996) 181.
201. See also Mathew Happold, “Bankovic v. Belgium and the Territorial Scope of the European Convention on Human Rights” (2003) 3 Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 77, at 89.
202. Cf. Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, 1950 I.C.J. 4, 16 (Judge Alvarez, Dissent);
203. B. Simma The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 2002) 15–17, 23–25.
204. see W. v. U.K. App. no. 9348/81, 32 Eur. Comm'n H.R. D. & R. (1983) 190 (UK is not responsible for anguish caused to persons within its territory by reason of a murder that occurred outside its territory, without any involvement on the government's part).
205. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Yugoslavia. 28 Dec. 1992, para. 8, UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.l6 (1992).
206. See e.g. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Cyprus. 9 May 1996, UN Doc. A/51/38, at para. 44 (1994);
207. Concluding Observations of the Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Moldova, 21 May 2002, UN Doc. CERD/C/60/CO/9, at para. 3 (2002).
208. See e.g. Special Rapporteur (Walter Kalin) Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Kuwait under Iraqi Occupation, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1992/26 (1992) at p. 17.
209. Human Rights Committee Summary record of the 1202nd meeting (second part): Croatia, Yugoslavia, 15 April 1993, UN Doc. CCPR/C/SR.1202/Add.l (19931, at para. 23.
210. Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31 on Art. 2 (The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant), 29 April 2003, UN Doc. CCPR/C/74/CRP.4/Rev.6. (General Comments) (2004). 208 It should be noted that European HR Convention, art. 56 authorizes parties to apply, by way of notification, the Convention for all “all or any of the territories for whose international relations it is responsible”. However, in Loizidou the Court held that this provision does not restrict the application of the Convention with respect to extraterritorial acts committed by State organs.
211. Loizidou v. Turkey, 310 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser AX 1995) 23.
212. Cyprus v. Turkey, App. 6780/74,6950/75, [1975] Y.B. Eur. Conv. H.R. 82, 112
213. reprinted in 621 L.R. (1982) 83, 86.
214. The Commission reached a similar outcome with respect to another complaint presented by Cyprus against Turkey in 1977. In its 1983 report the Commission held thatTurkey's conduct in Northern Cyprus was in breach of numerous of its human rights obligations. App. No. 8007/77, Cyprus v. Turkey, 72 Eur. Comm'n H.R. Dec. & Res. (1992) 5, 23–24 (Report issued in 1983). It is interesting to note that the Council of Ministers, which reviewed the Commission's 1976 and 1983 reports, adopted a more cautious approach which emphasized the need for the parties to try to resolve their differences through political means.
215. Council of Europe Committee of Minister Resolution DH (79), 20 Jan. 1979, 22 Y.B. Eur. Conv. H.R. (1979) 440;
216. Council of Europe Committee of Minister Resolution DH (92), 2 April 1992, 35 Y.B. Eur. Conv. H.R. (1992) 229.
217. See also Chrysostomos v. Turkey, App. 15299/89,86 Eur. Comm'n H.R. Dec. & Res. (1993) 4, 25–27.
218. Loizidou v. Turkey, 1996-VI Eur. Ct. H.R. 2216, 2235–2236.
219. Cyprus v. Turkey, 2001-IV E.C.H.R. 1.
220. See e.g. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 Aug. 1949, art. 1, 75 U.N.T.S. 31 (“To respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in all circumstances”).
221. (“the positive obligation in Article 1. [cannot] be divided and tailored in accordance with the particular circumstances of the extraterritorial act in question”). For more criticism, see Alexandra Ruth and Mirja Trilsch, “Bankovic v. Belgium (Admissibility). App. No. 52207/99” (2003) 97 A. Soc. I. L. 168, at 172.
222. See App. no. 1611/62.X v. F.R.G. 8 Y.B. Eur. Conv. H.R. (1965) 158 (acts of consular officials abroad could generate responsibility under the Convention).
223. Ocalan v. Trukey, Judgment of 12 March 2003, para. 93 (ECHR). One could perhaps speculate that the fact that Ocalan was a Turkish citizen influenced the willingness of the Court to accept jurisdiction over his extra-territorial detention, although there is nothing in the language of the judgment to confirm this.
224. Issa v. Turkey, Dec. no. 31821/96, 30 May 2000. The Court in Bankovic noted however that jurisdiction was not challenged in Issa - a fact detracting from its precedental value.
225. Drozd v. France, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) no. 240 (1992).
226. For support, see X v. Switzerland, App. nos. 7289/75 and 7349/76, 9 Eur. Comm'n H.R. D. & R. (1977) 57 (Switzerland incurs responsibility for measures made legally applicable in Liechtenstein - then, a non-member country).
227. But Cf. Hess v. U.K. App. no. 6231/73, 2 Eur. Comm'n H.R. D. & R. (1975) 72 (the UK does not incur responsibility for alleged violations in prison governed by three of the four occupying forces in Berlin).
228. On matters pertaining mainly to extradition and deportation, see e.g. Soering v. UK, 161 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) (1989);
229. D v. UK, 1997-III E.H.R.R. 777.
230. American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, 30 April, 1948, O.A.S. Res. XXX
231. In contrast, article 1 of the Inter-American Human Rights Convention adopts a “persons subject to their jurisdiction” standard. American Convention on Human Rights, 22 Nov. 1969, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123. Since the US has not ratified the Convention, the I/A HR Comm'n's jurisdiction over it is limited to the 1948 Declaration.
232. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Second Report on the Human Rights Situation in Suriname, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.66, doc. 21, rev. 1 (1985), [http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Suriname85eng/chap.5.htm].
233. Basic Law: Judicature, 1984, art. 15(c), 38 S.H. (1983–1984) 101, 104, provides that the Supreme Court of Israel may also sit as a High Court of Justice and 'when so sitting, it shall hear matters in which it deems it necessary to grant relief for the sake of justice and which are not within the jurisdiction of any other court.
234. Customary law is part of Israeli law, subject to conflicting legislation. Cr.A. 174/54 Shtampfer v. Attorney-General, 10 P.D. 5;
235. Cr. A. 336/61 Eichmann v. Attorney-General, 16 P.D. 2033.
236. See e.g. A.C.D. 7048/97 Anonymous Persons v. The Minister of Defense 54(1) P.D. 721;
237. H.C.J. 2599/00 Yated v. Ministry of Education, 56(5) P.D. 834.
238. H.C.J. 910/86, Ressler v. Minister of Defense, 42(2) P.D. 441, 477. An English translation is available in [http://62.90.71.124/files_eng/86/100/009/z01/86009100.z01.HTM], at para. 36.
239. P.D. at 478–483 (para. 36–46).
240. See e.g. H.C.J. 389/90 Dapey Zahav v. Broadcasting Authority, 35(1) P.D. 421,445–446. This view has attracted considerable criticism rooted in diverse opinions about the proper role of the judiciary in a democracy.
241. See e.g. H.C.J. 1635/90, Zharzhevski v. Prime Minister, 45(1) P.D. 744 (Opinion of Elon, J.);
242. Moshe Landau, “On Justiciability and Reasonableness in Administrative Law” (1989) 14 I'yuney Mishpat 5 [in Hebrew];
243. Ruth Gavison, Mordechai Kremnitzer and Yoav Dotan, Judicial Activism: For and Against (Jerusalem, Magnes Press, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000) 85, at 92–157 [in Hebrew];
244. Ronen Shamir, “The Politics of Reasonableness” (1994) 5 Teoria VeBikoret 7 [in Hebrew];
245. Menahem Mautner, “The Reasonableness of Politics”
246. Daphne Barak-Erez, “The Justiciability of Politics” (1999) 8 Plilim, at 369–387 [in Hebrew].
247. For a general review of the justiciability doctrine in the Israeli legal system in general and in matters pertaining to security issues in particular, see Orna Ben-Naftali and Keren R. Michaeli, “Justice-Ability: A Critique of the Alleged Non-Justiciability of Israel's Policy of Targeted Killings” (2003) 1(2) J. Int. Crim. L. at 368, 373–382.
248. Jacques Derrida, “Force of Law: ‘The Mystical Foundation of Authority’” (1990) 11 Cardozo L. Rev. 921, at 925 (”.the word enforceability reminds us that there is no such thing as a law that doesn't imply in itself, a priori. the possibility of being enforced. There are, to be sure, laws that are not enforced, but there is no law without enforceability”).
249. See H.C.J. 302/72 Hilu v. Government of Israel, 27(2) P.D. 169. As no such challenge was voiced, the legal review of the IDF's actions in the occupied territories has become a fait accompli.
250. See L. Varshavski, “Institutional Practices and Human Rights: the Hidden and the Evident in the Judgments of the HCJ,” (2003) 10 The Periodical for Political Science and International Relations. 43, at 47 [in Hebrew].
251. See generally, Menahem Hofnung, “Human Rights in the Occupied Territories” in Benyamen Noeberger and Ilan Ben-Ami, eds. Democracy and National Security in Israel (Tel Aviv, The Open University, 1996) 535–549.
252. H.C.J. 320/80 Kawasma v. The Minister of Defense, 35(3) P.D. 113,127 (Opinion of H. Cohn, J.).
253. See also, H.C.J. 393/82 Almalmon v. the Commander of the IDF, 37(4) P.D. 785, 811–812.
254. Yoav Dotan, “Judicial Rhetoric, Government Lawyers and Human Rights: the Case of the Israeli High Court of Justice During the Intifada” (1999) 33 Law and Society Rev. 319;
255. See H.C.J. 3799/02 Adallah v. Chief of Staff, Petition submitted on 5 May 2002, available at [http://www.acri.org.il/hebrew-acri/engine/story.asp?id=429] [in Hebrew and English].
256. See H.C.J, 9332/02 Jerar v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank (not yet published).
257. See e.g. H.C.J. 4016/02 Barghouti v. State of Israel (Decision of 10 May 2002; not yet published).
258. H.C.J. 3022/02 Canon (Law) The Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human Rights and the Environment v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank 56(3) P.D. 9.
259. E.g. H.C. J. 390/79 Dawikat v. The Government of Israel, 34(1) P.D. 1 (The appeal related to the legality of the establishment of a civilian settlement on the private property of the petitioners. The appeal was accepted on the grounds that the Hague Regulations includes the right to private property);
260. H.C.J. 8990/02 Physicians for Human Rights v. Chief Commander - South Command (not yet published)(A petition to forbid the use by the IDF of “fletchette” artillery shells on the grounds that they defy the principle of distinction and cause disproportionate harm. The appeal was rejected).
261. E.g. H.C.J. 2/79 El Assed v. The Minister of the Interior 34 (1) P.D. 505 (the petition requested permission to publish an Arab periodical and the petition was granted making scant reference to the principle of freedom of expression);
262. H.C.J. 792/88 Matur. v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank, 43(3) P.D. 542 (The petition concerned deportation orders. The Court, observing that deportation is a severe sanction as it offends a fundamental human right, rejected the appeal on the grounds of security considerations);
263. H.C.J. 168/91 Morcus v. the Minister of Defense, 45(1) P.D. 467 (the Court accepted the petition which concerned the fact that gas masks were distributed to the Israeli inhabitants of the West Bank but not to the Palestinian inhabitants, grounding the decision in the principle of equality, but without detailing its normative source).
264. E.g. H.C.J. 3451/02 Almadani, v. The Minister of Defense, 56(3) P.D. 30 (The petition concerned the supply of water and food to Palestinian civilians who were in the Church of the Nativity during operation Defensive Shield. The petition was rejected in reference to IHL and to the values of Israel as a Jewish and democratic state);
265. H.C.J. 2936/02 Physicians for Human Rights v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank, 56(3) P.D. 3 (The petition challenged the IDF's treatment of medical personnel during operation Defensive Shield and the Court stated that the IDF is bound by IHL, as is required by international law as well as by the values of the State as a Jewish and democratic state);
266. E.g. H.C.J. 13/86 Shahin v. The IDF Commander of the West Bank, 41(1) P.D. 197 (The petition concerned, inter-alia, the right to marry and create a family.
267. In H.C.J. 591/88 Taha. v. The Minister of Defense, 45(2) P.D. 45
268. E.g. H.C.J. 5100/94 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel, 53(4) P.D. 817.
269. This case concerned the interrogation methods used by the GSS, and the Court noting that human dignity includes the dignity of a person subject to interrogation, and that the use of brutal or inhuman means of interrogation is forbidden under Israeli law, proceeded to mention that “this conclusion is in accordance with conventional international law - to which Israel is a party - which forbids the use of torture, cruel or inhuman treatment or degrading treatment”. Interestingly, reference in this instance was made to literature (Nigel S. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law (Paris, Claredon Press, 1987) 63;
270. M. Evans and R. Morgan, Preventing Torture (Oxford, 1998) 61) but no explicit reference to the CAT or to other relevant IHR instruments was provided
271. (International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, 18 Dec. 1979, 1316 U.N.T.S. 205) and
272. In H.C.J 7015,7019/02 Ajouri v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank, 56(6) P.D. 352
273. An English version of the judgment is available at [http://62.90.71.124/files_eng/02/150/070/al5/02070150.al5.HTM]. Two additional recent cases deal with conditions in detention centers where Palestinian suspects were held: The first case - H.C.J. 3278/02 The Center for the Defense of the Individual v. The IDF. Commander in the West Bank, 57(1) P.D. 385, dealt with the conditions of detention of thousands of Palestinians in provisional facilities and in the ‘Ofer’ detention center in the West Bank. In rejecting the appeal the Court (Barak, J.) having observed that the Court does not have to decide whether or not Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty applies, as it is sufficient that Israeli administrative law applies, stated that the starting point for the discussion is the balancing point between the liberty of the individual and the security of the collective, citing the relevant provisions of the ICCPR and noting their customary status. He then proceeded to state: “[i]n addition to these principles, we must consider the principles and regulations set forth in the Fourth Geneva Convention”.
274. In the second cases - H.C.J. 5591/02 Yassin. v. Ben-David, the Military Commander ofKetziot Detention Center, 57(1) P.D. 403 the Court reviewed the conditions of detention of Palestinian detainees in the Ketziot detention center.
275. The most significant of these may be found in article 10(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)”
276. Human Rights Committee, General Comment 8, Article 9 (Sixteenth session, 1982), U.N. Doc. HRI\GEN\l\Rev.l at 8 (1994).
277. Brogan v. United Kingdom, 11 E.H.R.R. (1989) \\l;
278. McGoffv. Sweden 8 E.H.R.R. (1986) 246
279. De Jong v. Netherlands 8 E.H.R.R. (1986) 20;
280. Duinhoff v. Netherlands 13 E.H.R.R. (1991) 478;
281. Koster v. Netherlands 14 E.H.R.R. (1992) 396;
282. Aksoy v. Turkey 23 E.H.R.R. (1996) 533.
283. Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment, 9 Dec. 1988, G.A. res. 43/173
284. annex, 43 UN. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 298, U.N. Doc. A/43/49 (1988).
285. See Aharon Barak, “A Judge on Judging: The Role of a Supreme Court in a Democracy” (2002) 116 Harvard L. Rev. 16.
286. See also H.C.J. 7015/02 Ajuri v. IDF Commander in the West Bank
287. Cf. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Lebanon, 1 April 1997, UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.78, at para. 4–5 (1997);
288. Concluding Observation: Cyprus (1994)
289. Concluding Observation: Cyprus (1998)
290. Concluding Observation: Cyprus (1994)
291. Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Israel, 4 Dec. 1998, para. 6, UN Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.27 (1998).
292. The CERD Committee also hinted that the creation of the PA might affect the scope of Israel's obligations under the Convention. CERD Concluding Observations (1998)
293. Cf. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Moldova, 26 July 2002, UN Doc. CCPR/CO/75/MDA, at para. 4 (2002);
294. Concluding Observations: Lebanon
295. Director-Generals of the Justice and Foreign Ministries, Letter to the Chairperson of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 28 Dec. 1998, para. 5, reprinted in State of Israel, First Report on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2001) 269 [in Hebrew].
296. See David Matas, “Armed Opposition Groups” (1997) 24 Man. L.J. 621.
297. Dinah Shelton, “Protecting Human Rights in a Globalized World” (2002) 25. B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 273, at 282–286;
298. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Portugal, 4 Nov. 1999, UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.ll5, at para. 3 (1999).
299. See also Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:Portugal, 5 May 1997, UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.77, at para.4 (1997);
300. Statement of the Chairperson on behalf of the Human Rights Committee in Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: UK (Hong-Kong), 9 Nov. 1995, UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.57 (1995).
301. See also Kathleen A. Cavanaugh, “Theoretical and International Framework: Selective Justice, the Case of Israel and the Occupied Territories” (2003) 26 Fordham Int. L. J. 934.
302. See e.g. Declaration of St. Petersburg, 29 Nov. 1968, reprinted in 1 The Law of War: Documented History (Leon Friedman ed. 1972) 192;
303. Hague Convention No. II with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land (and Annexed Regulations), 29 July 1899, 32 Stat. 1803, T.S. No. 403;
304. Hague Convention No. Ill Relative to the Opening of Hostilities, 18 Oct. 1907, 36 Stat. 2259, T.S. No. 538; Hague IV.
305. See Jean Pictet, Developments and Principles of International Law (Dordecht, M. Nijhoff, 1985) 49–58;
306. Frits Kalshoven and L. Zeveld, Constraints on the Waging of War (Geneva: ICRC, 3rd, 2001) 19–25.
307. See e.g. Emma Playfair, “Playing on Principle? Israel's Justification for its Administrative Acts in the Occupied Territories” in Emma Playfair, ed. International Law and the Administration of Occupied Territories: Tioo Decades of Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1992) 205, at 216;
308. Walter Kalin “The Struggle against Torture” (1998) 324 Int. Rev. Red Cross, 433, 434;
309. The Commentary to the Geneva Protocols states that: “Those who belong to armed forces or armed groups may be attacked at any time”. C. Pillaud (ed.) Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949 (Geneva, 1987) 1453.
310. A useful analogy can be found in domestic law dealing with conflicting norms of two or more jurisdictions. US courts have adopted a very narrow definition of what constitutes such conflicts. Hartford Fire Insurance Co. v. California, 509 U.S. 764,798–799 (1993)(conflict arises only when conduct mandated by one jurisdiction is prohibited by the other).
311. See generally, Fionnuala Ni-Aolain, 'The Relationship between Situations of Emergency and Low-Intensity Armed Conflict” (1998) 28 Is. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 97.
312. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 14, The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/2000/4 (2000).
313. See e.g. Human Rights Committee, General Comment 18, Non-Discrimination (1989), U.N. Doc. HRI\GEN\l\Rev.l at 26 (1994).
314. See Thomas M. Franck, The Power of Legitimacy among Nations (New York, Oxford University Press, 1990) 43–49.
315. Also see Djamchid Momtaz, “War Crimes in Non-International Armed Conflicts Under the Statute of the International Criminal Court” (1999) Y.B. Int'l Humanitarian L. 177, at 185.
316. Legal Consequences of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 2004 I.C.J. (forthcomingXHereinafter: OPT Wall).
317. The same reading of Article 6 was offered by Professor Dinstein, see Yoram Dinstein, “The International Legal Status of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip” (1998) 28 Isr. Y.B. Hum. Rts. 37, at 42–44.