That "S" Word: Sovereignty, and globalization, and human rights, et cetera

Fordham Law Review

Volumn 68, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 1-13

  Henkin, Louis ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033448302     PISSN: 0015704X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (65)

1. See Gerry J. Simpson, The Diffusion of Sovereignty: Self-Determination in the Post-Colonial Age, 32 Stan. J. Int'l L. 255, 262 (1996).
2. See generally Urs W. Saxer, The Transformation of the Soviet Union: From a Socialist Federation to a Commonwealth of Independent States, 14 Loy. L.A. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 581 (1992) (analyzing the dissolution of the Soviet Union); John F. Burns, Confirming Split, Last 2 Republics Proclaim a Small New Yugoslavia, N.Y. Times, Apr. 28, 1992, at A1 (reporting the formal separation of former republics from Yugoslavia); Chuck Sudetic, Yugoslav Groups Reach an Accord, N.Y. Times, Mar. 19, 1992, at A9 (reporting moves toward an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina).
3. See generally Urs W. Saxer, The Transformation of the Soviet Union: From a Socialist Federation to a Commonwealth of Independent States, 14 Loy. L.A. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 581 (1992) (analyzing the dissolution of the Soviet Union); John F. Burns, Confirming Split, Last 2 Republics Proclaim a Small New Yugoslavia, N.Y. Times, Apr. 28, 1992, at A1 (reporting the formal separation of former republics from Yugoslavia); Chuck Sudetic, Yugoslav Groups Reach an Accord, N.Y. Times, Mar. 19, 1992, at A9 (reporting moves toward an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina).
4. See generally Urs W. Saxer, The Transformation of the Soviet Union: From a Socialist Federation to a Commonwealth of Independent States, 14 Loy. L.A. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 581 (1992) (analyzing the dissolution of the Soviet Union); John F. Burns, Confirming Split, Last 2 Republics Proclaim a Small New Yugoslavia, N.Y. Times, Apr. 28, 1992, at A1 (reporting the formal separation of former republics from Yugoslavia); Chuck Sudetic, Yugoslav Groups Reach an Accord, N.Y. Times, Mar. 19, 1992, at A9 (reporting moves toward an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina).
5. See Tim Golden, Pinochet in the Dock; Arresting a Dictator Is One Thing. Then It Gets Tough, N.Y. Times, Oct. 25, 1998, § 4, at 5.
6. See Anthony Anghie, Finding the Peripheries: Sovereignty and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century International Law, 40 Harv. Int'l L.J. 1, 67 (1999); Celia R. Taylor, A Modest Proposal: Statehood and Sovereignty in a Global Age, 18 U. Pa. J. Int'l Econ. L. 745, 757-58 (1997); cf. U.N. Charter art. 2, para. 4 (prohibiting members from infringing upon the "territorial integrity or political independence" of any state).
7. See Anthony Anghie, Finding the Peripheries: Sovereignty and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century International Law, 40 Harv. Int'l L.J. 1, 67 (1999); Celia R. Taylor, A Modest Proposal: Statehood and Sovereignty in a Global Age, 18 U. Pa. J. Int'l Econ. L. 745, 757-58 (1997); cf. U.N. Charter art. 2, para. 4 (prohibiting members from infringing upon the "territorial integrity or political independence" of any state).
8. See U.N. Charter art. 2, para. 4; Taylor, supra note 4, at 757-59.
9. See U.N. Charter art. 2, para. 4; Richard T. Ford, Law's Territory (A History of Jurisdiction), 97 Mich. L. Rev. 843, 898-99 (1999).
10. See Louis Henkin, "Nationality" at the Turn of the Century, in Recht zwischen Umbruch und Bewahrung: Völkerrecht, Europarecht, Staatsrecht 89 passim (Ulrich Beyerlin at al. eds., 1995) (discussing the evolution of national identity and its effect on international politics).
11. See U.N. Charter art. 2, paras. 1-4; Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter and Judgement of the Nuremberg Tribunal, Report of the International Law Comm., U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., Supp. No. 12, at 11, U.N. Doc. A/1316 (1950) [hereinafter Nuremberg Principles].
12. See U.N. Charter arts. 1, 2, paras. 4, 33; Nuremberg Principles, supra note 8, Principle VI(a).
13. See U.N. Charter preamble; Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community, preamble, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11 [hereinafter Treaty of Rome]; North Atlantic Treaty, Apr. 4, 1949, 63 Stat. 2241, 34 U.N.T.S. 243 (establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)).
14. See U.N. Charter art. 10 (providing the General Assembly the power to make nonbinding recommendations); id. art. 27, para. 3 (requiring an affirmative vote of nine members of the Security Council, as well as unanimous consent of the permanent members, before a binding resolution may be issued).
15. See supra note 4 and accompanying text.
16. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
17. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
18. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
19. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
20. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
21. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
22. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) [hereinafter Convention Against Torture]; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW]; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 [hereinafter ICERD]; International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 19, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter ICESCR]; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].
23. See ICCPR, supra note 13, at 256-301; ICESCR, supra note 13, at 52-106.
24. UDHR, supra note 13.
25. See supra note 14 and accompanying text.
26. See Nuremberg Principles, supra note 8.
27. See infra note 31 and accompanying text.
28. See Genocide Convention, supra note 13.
29. See Convention on the Rights of the Child, Nov. 20, 1989, reprinted at 28 I.L.M. 1448 (1989).
30. See Convention Against Torture, supra note 13.
31. See ICERD, supra note 13.
32. See CEDAW, supra note 13.
33. See Wolfgang Freiherr Von Marschall, Creating the Necessary Instruments for a Market Economy in the Post-Communist Countries of Eastern Europe: Policies and Problems, 39 St. Louis U. L.J. 951, 951 (1995).
34. See Alfred C. Aman, Jr., The Globalizing State: A Future-Oriented Perspective on the Public/Private Distinction, Federalism, and Democracy, 31 Vand. J. Transnat'l L. 769, 815 (1998); Eleanor M. Fox, Vision of Europe: Lessons for the World, 18 Fordham Int'l L.J. 379, 385 (1994).
35. See Alfred C. Aman, Jr., The Globalizing State: A Future-Oriented Perspective on the Public/Private Distinction, Federalism, and Democracy, 31 Vand. J. Transnat'l L. 769, 815 (1998); Eleanor M. Fox, Vision of Europe: Lessons for the World, 18 Fordham Int'l L.J. 379, 385 (1994).
36. See Lan Cao, Law and Economic Development: A New Beginning?, 32 Tex. Int'l L.J. 545, 558 (1997) (book review).
37. See Paul B. Stephan, III et al., International Business and Economics: Law and Policy 302 (1993).
38. See, e.g., Neil A. F. Popovic, In Pursuit of Environmental Human Rights: Commentary on the Draft Declaration of Principles on Human Rights and the Environment, 27 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 487, 487-96 (1996) (describing the international recognition of the importance of global environmental issues).
39. See Lee Boyd, The Inconvenience of Victims: Abolishing Forum Non Conveniens on U.S. Human Rights Litigation, 39 Va. J. Int'l L. 41, 55-56 (1998).
40. See id. at 56.
41. See, e.g., Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, 22 U.S.C. §§ 5001-5111 (1988) (imposing prohibitions against a broad scope of economic relations with South African business and government agencies, to be lifted upon "substantial progress" toward eliminating apartheid); Security Council Res. 418, U.N. SCOR, 32d Sess., 2046th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/418 (1977) (imposing mandatory sanctions against South Africa, constituting the first mandatory sanctions against a U.N. member state); Julie Fairchild Grey, Note, The Passage of the Federal Anti-Apartheid Act: The Culmination of Anti-Apartheid Efforts Within the United States, 11 Suffolk Transnat'l L. Rev. 387, 409-413 (1987) (discussing the development of United States foreign policy toward South Africa).
42. See, e.g., Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, 22 U.S.C. §§ 5001-5111 (1988) (imposing prohibitions against a broad scope of economic relations with South African business and government agencies, to be lifted upon "substantial progress" toward eliminating apartheid); Security Council Res. 418, U.N. SCOR, 32d Sess., 2046th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/418 (1977) (imposing mandatory sanctions against South Africa, constituting the first mandatory sanctions against a U.N. member state); Julie Fairchild Grey, Note, The Passage of the Federal Anti-Apartheid Act: The Culmination of Anti-Apartheid Efforts Within the United States, 11 Suffolk Transnat'l L. Rev. 387, 409-413 (1987) (discussing the development of United States foreign policy toward South Africa).
43. International Labor Organization.
44. Non-Governmental Organizations.
45. In a failed state, "the central authority in a country has collapsed and there no longer exists a functioning government to maintain order." Charles W. Kegley, Jr. et al., The Rise and Fall of the Nonintervention Norm: Some Correlates and Potential Consequences, 22 Fletcher F. World Aff., Winter-Spring 1998, at 81, 89.
46. See supra note 4 and accompanying text.
47. See John P. Humphrey, The International Law of Human Rights in the Middle Twentieth Century, in The Present State of International Law and Other Essays (International Law Association 1973) 75, 75 (describing the traditional view that human rights fell "within domestic jurisdiction and hence beyond the reach of international law").
48. North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
49. In the aftermath of human rights violations in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, the United Nations established international criminal tribunals to identify and punish the perpetrators of the atrocities. See Security Council Res. 955, U.N. SCOR, 49th Sess., 3453d mtg, U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994) (establishing an international tribunal for human rights abuses in Rwanda); Security Council Res. 827, U.N. SCOR, 48th Sess., 3217th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993) (implementing an international human rights tribunal for the former Yugoslavia). Whereas resolutions of the U.N. General Assembly are not binding upon U.N. members, the U.N. Charter obligates members to obey Security Council Resolutions. See U.N. Charter art. 25. The Security Council is authorized only to issue a binding resolution to combat a threat to international peace and security. See id. art. 39. In order to mandate international action against human rights violations, the Security Council must first find that the violations threaten peace and security across national boundaries.
50. In the aftermath of human rights violations in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, the United Nations established international criminal tribunals to identify and punish the perpetrators of the atrocities. See Security Council Res. 955, U.N. SCOR, 49th Sess., 3453d mtg, U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994) (establishing an international tribunal for human rights abuses in Rwanda); Security Council Res. 827, U.N. SCOR, 48th Sess., 3217th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993) (implementing an international human rights tribunal for the former Yugoslavia). Whereas resolutions of the U.N. General Assembly are not binding upon U.N. members, the U.N. Charter obligates members to obey Security Council Resolutions. See U.N. Charter art. 25. The Security Council is authorized only to issue a binding resolution to combat a threat to international peace and security. See id. art. 39. In order to mandate international action against human rights violations, the Security Council must first find that the violations threaten peace and security across national boundaries.
51. See U.N. Charter art. 24.
52. See id. art. 27, para. 3.
53. See id. art. 23, para. 1.
54. See U.N. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, adopted July 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. No. A/CONF. 183/9, art. 7 (defining crimes against humanity).
55. See id. art. 1 (establishing the International Criminal Court).
56. The Declaration of Independence para. 2 (U.S. 1776).
57. See id.
58. Id.
59. See CEDAW, supra note 13.
60. See ICCPR, supra note 13.
61. See U.S. Const, amend. I; The Declaration of Independence passim (U.S. 1776).
62. See supra note 31 and accompanying text.
63. See Taylor, supra note 4, at 807.
64. Non-Governmental Organizations.
65. See supra note 31 (describing mandatory codes); G.A. Res. 41/35F, 41 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 53, at 28, U.N. Doc. A/41/53 (1987) (implementing a voluntary code).