The control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus blood stream infections in England

Open Forum Infectious Diseases

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2015, Pages

  Duerden, Brian ^a   Fry, Carole ^b   Johnson, Alan P ^c   Wilcox, Mark H ^d  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b Department of Health ^*  (United Kingdom)

^c PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Healthcare associated infections

Indexed keywords

CEPHALOSPORIN; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

ARTICLE; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIUM CULTURE; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE FACILITY; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH SERVICE; HEALTHCARE ASSOCIATED INFECTION; HOSPITAL HYGIENE; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; LIFE EXPECTANCY; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 84978328472     PISSN: None     EISSN: 23288957     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofv035     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Phillips I. MRSA: a historical perspective. In: Gould I, ed. MRSA in Practice. London: Royal Society of Medicine Press Ltd, 2007: 1-12.
2. Jevons MP. Celbelinin-resistant staphylococci. BMJ 1961; i:564-7.
3. Pavillard R, Harvey K, Douglas D, et al. Epidemic of hospitalised infection due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in major Victorian hospitals. Med J Aust 1982; I:451-4.
4. Gilbert GL, Asche V, Hewstone AS, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in neonatal nurseries. Med J Aust 1982; I:455-9.
5. Spicer WJ. Three strategies in the control of staphylococci including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect 1984; 5(Suppl A): 45-9.
6. Kerr S, Kerr GE, Mackintosh CA, et al. A survey of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus affecting patients in England and Wales. J Hosp Infect 1990; 16:35-48.
7. Richardson JF, Reith S. Characterization of a strain of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (EMRSA-15) by conventional and molecular methods. J Hosp Infect 1993; 25:45-52.
8. Anonymous. EMRSA-16: a new epidemic strain of Staphylococcus aureus. Commun Dis Rep CDR Wkly 1993; 3:25.
9. Cox RA, Conquest C, Mallaghan C, et al. A major outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus caused by a new phage-type (EMRSA-16). J Hosp Infect 1995; 29:87-106.
10. Johnson AP, Aucken HM, Cavendish S, et al. Dominance of EMRSA-15 and-16 among MRSA causing nosocomial bacteraemia in the UK: analysis of isolates from the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (EARSS). J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 48:143-4.
11. Reacher MH, Shah A, Livermore DM, et al. Bacteraemia and antibiotic resistance of its pathogens reported in England andWales between 1990 and 1998: trend analysis. BMJ 2000; 320:213-6.
12. Johnson AP, Davies J, Guy R, et al. Mandatory surveillance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteraemia in England: the first 10 years. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:802-9.
13. Health Protection Agency. Results of the first three and a half years of the Department of Health's mandatory methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) surveillance system in acute trusts in England. Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/topics/infectiousdiseases/infectionsaz/staphylococcusaureus/epidemiologicaldata/mandatorysurveillance/staphresultsofthefirstthreeandahalfyearsofthedept/. Accessed February 6, 2015.
14. Health Protection Agency. Mandatory surveillance of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/hpaweb&page&hpawebautolistname/page/1191942169773. Accessed February 6, 2015.
15. Health Protection Agency. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia past publications (voluntary surveillance). Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/topics/infectiousdiseases/referencelibrary/staphylococcusaureusreferences/staph_15_pastpubsvoluntarysurveillance/. Accessed February 6, 2015.
16. House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology. Resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents (HL Paper 81-1, 7th Report Session 1997-98). London: The Stationary Office, 1998. Available at: http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldselect/ldsctech/081vii/st0702.htm. Accessed February 6, 2015.
17. Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General-HC 230 session 1999-2000. The management and control of hospital acquired infection in acute NHS trusts in England. London: The Stationary Office, 2000. Available at: http://www.nao.org.uk/report/the-management-andcontrol-of-hospital-acquired-infection-in-acute-nhs-trusts-in-england/. Accessed February 6, 2015.
18. Department of Health. UK antimicrobial resistance strategy and action plan. London: DH, 2000. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4078448.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
19. Committee of Public Accounts 42nd Report of Session 1999-2000. The management and control of hospital acquired infection in acute NHS Trusts in England 2000. London: The Stationary Office, 2000. Available at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmpubacc/306/30602.htm. Accessed February 6, 2015.
20. Pratt RJ, Pellowe C, Loveday HP, et al. The epic project: developing national evidence-based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated Infections. J Hosp Infect 2001; 47(Supplement): S3-82.
21. NHS Estates. National Standards of Cleanliness. London: The Stationary Office, 2001.
22. Chief Medical Officer's Update 30. Surveillance of healthcare associated infections. London: DH, 2001. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4013652.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
23. Department of Health. Getting ahead of the curve: a strategy for combating infectious diseases (including other aspects of health protection). A report from the Chief Medical Officer. London: Department of Health, 2002. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4060875.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
24. Department of Health. Chief Medical Officer letter-PL CMO (2003)4: surveillance of healthcare associated infections. London: Department of Health, 2003. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/lettersandcirculars/professionalletters/chiefmedicalofficerletters/dh_4003782. Accessed February 6, 2015.
25. Department of Health. Chief Medical Officer letter-PL CMO (2003)3: Hospital pharmacy initiative for promoting prudent use of antibiotics in hospitals. London: Department of Health, 2003. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/lettersandcirculars/professionalletters/chiefmedicalofficerletters/dh_4004614. Accessed February 6, 2015.
26. Department of Health. Winning ways: working together to reduce healthcare associated infection in England. London: Department of Health, 2003. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4064682. Accessed February 6, 2015.
27. Department of Health. Towards cleaner hospitals and lower rates of infection: a summary of action. London: Department of Health, 2004. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4085649. Accessed February 6, 2015.
28. Gush C, Borriello P. An overview of the UK Department of Health's Rapid Review Panel. J Hosp Infect 2007; 65(S2):27-9.
29. Department of Health. National Standards Local Action-Health and Social Care Standards and Planning Framework 2005/06-2007/08. London: Department of Health, 2004. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4086057. Accessed February 6, 2015.
30. Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General-HC 876 Session 2003-2004. Improving patient care by reducing the risk of hospital acquired infection: a progress report. London: The Stationary Office, 2004. Available at: http://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2004/07/0304876.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
31. National Patient Safety Agency. Clean hands help to save lives. Patient safety alert 4. London: National Patient Safety Agency, 2004.
32. Department of Health. A matron's charter: an action plan for cleaner hospitals. London: Central Office of Communication, 2004.
33. Department of Health. Bloodborne MRSA infection rates to be halved by 2008-Press notice. London: Department of Health, 2004.
34. MRSA/HCAI/Cleanliness Improvement Programme. 2005. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101125133833/http://clean-safe-care.nhs.uk/index.php?pid=1. Accessed February 6, 2015.
35. Office for National Statistics. Deaths involving MRSA: England and Wales, 1999-2003. Health Statistics Quarterly 25. London: The Stationary Office, 2005. Available at: http://cedadocs.badc.rl.ac.uk/291/1/health_stats.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
36. Department of Health. Saving Lives-a delivering programme to reduce healthcare associated infection, including MRSA. London: Department of Health, 2005. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4113888. Accessed February 6, 2015.
37. Department of Health. Mandatory surveillance of methicillin resistant Staphlylococcus aureus bacteraemias. Professional letter from the Chief Medical Officer (PL/CMO/2005/4). London: Department of Health, 2005. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_4112590.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
38. Department of Health. Introduction of the mandatory MRSA bacteraemia enhanced surveillance scheme. London: Department of Health, 2005. (CDR 6 October 2005). Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.hpa.org.uk/cdr/archives/archive05/news/news4005.htm#mrsa. Accessed February 6, 2015.
39. Department of Health. Going further faster: implementing the Saving Lives delivery programme. Sustainable change for cleaner, safer care. London: Department of Health, 2006. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081105143757/http://dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4134547?idcservice=get_file&did=8143&rendition=web. Accessed February 6, 2015.
40. National Patient Safety Agency. Learning through action to reduce infection. London: National Patient Safety Agency, 2006. Available at: http://www.nrls.npsa.nhs.uk/resources/?EntryId45=61832. Accessed February 6, 2015.
41. Department of Health. Code of practice for the prevention and control of healthcare associated infections (Health Act 2006). London: Department of Health, 2006. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4139336. Accessed February 6, 2015.
42. Department of Health. A summary of best practice for MRSA screening. Professional letter from the Chief Medical Officer (PL/CMO/2006/4). London: Department of Health, 2006.
43. Pratt RJ, Pellowe CM, Wilson JA, et al. epic2: national evidence-based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect 2007; 65(Suppl 1):S1-64.
44. Department of Health. Clean, safe care: reducing infections and saving lives. London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_078134. Accessed February 6, 2015.
45. Department of Health. £50 million additional funding for reducing healthcare associated infections. Professional letter from the Chief Medical Officer (PL/CMO/2007/6). London: Department of Health, 2007.
46. Department of Health. Uniforms and workwear: an evidence base for developing local policy. London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_078433. Accessed February 6, 2015.
47. Department of Health. Improving infection control and cleanliness. Professional letter from the Chief Nursing Officer (PL/CNO/2007/6). London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/lettersandcirculars/professionalletters/chiefnursingofficerletters/dh_080053?idcservice=get_file&did=153132&rendition=web. Accessed February 6, 2015.
48. Department of Health. The NHS in England: the operating framework for NHS, 2008/9. London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_081094. Accessed February 6, 2015.
49. Department of Health. MRSA screening operational guidance. London: Department of Health, 2008. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/lettersandcirculars/dearcolleagueletters/dh_086687?idcservice=get_file&did=170026&rendition=web. Accessed February 6, 2015.
50. National Patient Safety Agency. Clean hands save lives. Patient Safety Alert. Second Edition. London: National Patient Safety Agency, 2008:1-4.
51. Department of Health. Operating framework for 2009/10 for the NHS in England. London: Department of Health, 2008. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_091445. Accessed February 6, 2015.
52. Department of Health. The NHS Constitution. London: Department of Health, 2009. Available at: http://www.constitution.nhs.uk/downloads/nhs_constitution_document.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
53. Department of Health. The NHS in England: Operating framework for NHS, 2010/11. London: Department of Health, 2009. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_110107. Accessed February 6, 2015.
54. Department of Health. MRSA screening-operational guidance 3. London: Department of Health, 2010.
55. Department of Health. The Operating Framework for the NHS in England 2011/12. London: Department of Health, 2010. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-operating-frameworkfor-the-nhs-in-england-2011-12. Accessed February 6, 2015.
56. Fuller C, Robotham J, Savage J, et al. The National One Week Prevalence Audit of MRSA screening. Final report prepared for the Department of Health by the NOWstudy team. 2013. Available at: http://idrn.org/documents/resources/Final%20report.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
57. Department of Health Advisory Committee on Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare Associated Infection. Antimicrobial stewardship 'Start Smart Then Focus'. London: Department of Health, 2011. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/215308/dh_131181.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
58. UK Parliament. Health and Social Care Act. 2008. http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2007-08/healthandsocialcare.html. Accessed February 6, 2015.
59. Cooke EM, Coello R, Sedgwick J, et al. A national surveillance scheme for hospital associated infections in England. Team of the Nosocomial Infection National Surveillance Scheme. J Hosp Infect 2000; 46:1-3.
60. World Health Organization. Guidelines on hand hygiene in health care: a summary. First Global Patient Safety Challenge: Clean Care Is Safer Care, 2005. Available at: http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CDUQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fentity%2Fgpsc%2F5may%2Ftools%2Fwho_guidelines-handhygiene_summary.pdf&ei=kf1TUqmLC46xXR8YCwDA&usg=AFQjCNEnOv-kBFzG12prtGTocqRErCjxIA&bvm=bv.53537100,d.d2k&cad=rja. Accessed February 6, 2015.
61. Coia JE, Duckworth GJ, Edwards DI, et al. Guidelines for the control and prevention of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in healthcare facilities. J Hosp Infect 2006; 63(Suppl 1):S1-44.
62. Office for National Statistics. Deaths involving MRSA, 2006 to 2010. Available at: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/subnational-health2/deaths-involving-mrsa/2006-to-2010/index.html. Accessed February 6, 2015.
63. European Centre for Disease Control. Antimicrobial resistance surveillance in Europe. 2011. Available at: http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/_layouts/CopyUtil.aspx?Use=id&Action=dispform&ItemId=719&ListId=4f55ad51-4aed-4d32-b960-af70113dbb90&WebId=270275b7-419a-4352-a8fb-f0c757d92e66&SiteId=ffe386b2-8461-4318-8856-32714ec41f3a. Accessed February 6, 2015.
64. de Kraker ME, Jarlier V, Monen JC, et al. The changing epidemiology of bacteraemias in Europe: trends from the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19:860-8.
65. Klein EY, Sun L, Smith DL, et al. The changing epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the United States: a national observational study. Am J Epidemiol 2013; 177:666-74.
66. Song JH, Hsueh PR, Chung DR, et al. Spread ofmethicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus between the community and the hospitals in Asian countries: an ANSORP study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:1061-9.
67. Mitchell BG, Collignon PJ, McCann R, et al. A major reduction in hospital-onset Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in Australia-12 years of progress: an observational study. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59:969-75.
68. Grundmann H, Aanensen DM, van den Wijngaard CC, et al. Geographic distribution of Staphylococcus aureus causing invasive infections in Europe: a molecular-epidemiological analysis. PLoS Med 2010; 7:e1000215.
69. Ellington MJ, Hope R, Livermore DM, et al. Decline of EMRSA-16 amongst methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus causing bacteraemias in the UK between 2001 and 2007. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65:446-8.
70. Wyllie DH, Walker AS, Miller R, et al. Decline of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Oxfordshire hospitals is strain-specific and preceded infection-control intensification. BMJ Open 2011; 1:e000160.
71. Wyllie D, Paul J, Crook D. Waves of trouble: MRSA strain dynamics and assessment of the impact of infection control. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:2685-8.
72. Wilcox MH. Recent initiatives to reduce the spread of meticillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Br J Hosp Med (Lond) 2009; 70: 399-401.
73. Davey P, Brown E, Charani E, et al. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 4:CD003543. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003543.pub3.
74. MacKenzie FM, Bruce J, Struelens MJ, et al. Antimicrobial drug use and infection control practices associated with the prevalence of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus in European hospitals. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007; 13:269-76.
75. Wertheim HFL, Vos MC, Boelens HAM, et al. Low prevalence of methicillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) at hospital admission in the Netherlands: the value of search-and-destroy and restrictive antibiotic use. J Hosp Infect 2004; 56:321-5.
76. van Cleef BA, Kluytmans JA, van Benthem BH, et al. Cross border comparison of MRSA bacteraemia between The Netherlands and North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany): a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42787. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042787.
77. Brody H, Rip MR, Vinten-Johansen P, et al. Map-making and mythmaking in Broad Street: the London cholera epidemic, 1854. Lancet 2000; 356:64-8.
78. Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General-HC 560 Session 2008-2009. Reducing healthcare associated infection in hospitals in England. London: The Stationary Office, 2009. Available at: http://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/0809560.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2015.
79. Department of Health. Root cause analysis. Available at: http://nhschoicestraining.spinningclock.com/index.php?pid=99. Accessed February 6, 2015.
80. Millar M. Are national targets the right way to improve infection control practice? J Hosp Infect 2009; 73:408-13.
81. Stone SP, Fuller C, Savage J, et al. Evaluation of the national Cleanyourhands campaign to reduce Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia and Clostridium difficile infection in hospitals in England and Wales by improved hand hygiene: four year, prospective, ecological, interrupted time series study. BMJ 2012; 344:e3005.
82. Sroka S, Gastmeier P, Meyer E. Impact of alcohol hand-rub use on meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an analysis of the literature. J Hosp Infect 2010; 74:204-11.
83. Wenzel RP, Bearman G, Edmond MB. Screening for MRSA: a flawed hospital infection control intervention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29:1012-8.
84. Wertheim HF, Melles DC, Vos MC, et al. The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5:751-62.
85. Wilcox MH, Shetty N, Fawley WN, et al. Changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection following the introduction of a national ribotyping-based surveillance scheme in England. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55:1056-63.
86. Ashiru-Oredope D, Sharland M, Charani E, et al. Improving the quality of antibiotic prescribing in the NHS by developing a new Antimicrobial Stewardship Programme: Start Smart-Then Focus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67(Suppl 1):i51-63.
87. Public Health England. Voluntary surveillance of Escherichia coli bacteraemia. Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/Topics/InfectiousDiseases/InfectionsAZ/EscherichiaColi/VoluntarySurveillance/. Accessed February 6, 2015.