"It was me on a good day": Exploring the smart drug use phenomenon in England

Frontiers in Psychology

Volumn 7, Issue MAY, 2016, Pages

  Vargo, Elisabeth J ^a   Petróczi, Andrea ^a  

^a KINGSTON UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cognitive enhancing drugs; Drug instrumentalization; Grounded theory; Normalization; Students

Indexed keywords

EID: 84974712824     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16641078     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00779     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs [ACMD] (2015). Drug Penalties. London: Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/penalties-drug-possession-dealing
2. Atkinson, R. (1998). The Life Story Interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
3. Banjo, O. C., Nadler, R., and Reiner, P. B. (2010). Physician attitudes towards pharmacological cognitive enhancement: safety concerns are paramount. PLoS ONE 5:e14322. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014322
4. Bell, S., Partridge, B., Lucke, J., and Hall, W. (2013). Australian university students' attitudes towards the acceptability and regulation of pharmaceuticals to improve academic performance. Neuroethics 6, 197-205. doi: 10.1007/s12152-012-9153-9
5. Benanti, P. (2010). Neuroenhancement in young people: cultural need or medical technology? AJOB Neurosci. 1, 27-29. doi: 10.1080/21507740903523210
6. Benson, K., Flory, K., Humphreys, K. L., and Lee, S. S. (2015). Misuse of stimulant medication among college students: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 18, 50-76. doi: 10.1007/s10567-014-0177-z
7. Bloodworth, A., and McNamee, M. (2010). Clean olympians? Doping and anti-doping: the views of talented young British athletes. Int. J. Drug Policy 21, 276-282. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.11.009
8. Cakic, V. (2009). Smart drugs for cognitive enhancement: ethical and pragmatic considerations in the era of cosmetic neurology. J. Med. Ethics 35, 611-615. doi: 10.1136/jme.2009.030882
9. Conrad, P., and Potter, D. (2000). From hyperactive children to ADHD adults: observations on the expansion of medical categories. Soc. Probl. 47, 559-582. doi: 10.1525/sp.2000.47.4.03x0308v
10. Coveney, C., Gabe, J., and Williams, S. (2012). Boosting brainpower? From the medicalisation of cognition to the pharmaceuticalisation of routine mental life. Salute e Soc. 2, 151-165. doi: 10.3280/SES2012-SU2010EN
11. Coveney, C. M. (2011). "Cognitive enhancement? Exploring modafinil use in social context," in Sociological Reflections on the Neuroscience: Advances in Medical Sociology, Vol. 13, eds M. Pickersgill and I. Van Keulen (Bingley: Emerald Group), 203-228
12. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
13. de Souza, R. (2015). "I've thought about this, trust me": understanding the values and assumptions underlying prescription stimulant misuse among college students. Int. J. Commun. 9, 1187-1205
14. DeSantis, A. D., and Hane, A. C. (2010). "Adderall is definitely not a drug": justifications for the illegal use of ADHD stimulants. Substance Use Misuse 45, 31-46. doi: 10.3109/10826080902858334
15. Farah, M. J., Smith, M. E., Ilieva, I., and Hamilton, R. H. (2014). Cognitive enhancement. Wiley Interdiscipl. Rev. Cogn. Sci. 5, 95-103
16. Ford, J. A., and Schroeder, R. D. (2008). Academic strain and non-medical use of prescription stimulants among college students. Deviant Behav. 30, 26-53. doi: 10.1080/01639620802049900
17. Foucault, M. (1985). The History of Sexuality, The use of pleasure, Vol. 2. London: Penguin
18. Fountain, J. (ed.) (2000). EMCDDA Scientific Monograph Series (no.4). UNDERSTANDING and Responding to Drug Use: The role of Qualitative Research. Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the european communities
19. Goodman, J., Lovejoy, P. E., and Sherratt, A. (eds) (1996). Consuming Habits: Global and Historical Perspectives on How Cultures Define Drugs. New York, NY: Routledge
20. Goodman, R. (2010). Cognitive enhancement, cheating, and accomplishment. Kennedy Inst. Ethics J. 20, 145-160. doi: 10.1353/ken.0.0309
21. Greely, H., Sahakian, B., Harris, J., Kessler, R. C., Gazzaniga, M., Campbell, P., et al. (2008). Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature 456, 702-705. doi: 10.1038/456702a
22. Hall, K. M., Irwin, M. M., Bowman, K. A., Frankenberger, W., and Jewett, D. C. (2005). Illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication among college students. J. Am. Coll. Health 53, 167-174. doi: 10.3200/JACH.53.4.167-174
23. Hildt, E., Lieb, K., Bagusat, C., and Franke, A. G. (2015). Reflections on addiction in students using stimulants for neuroenhancement: a preliminary interview study. BioMed Res. Int. 2015:621075. doi: 10.1155/2015/621075
24. Hildt, E., Lieb, K., and Franke, A. G. (2014). Life context of pharmacological academic performance enhancement among university students - A qualitative approach. BMC Med. Ethics 15:23. doi: 10.1186/1472-6939-15-23
25. Howes, M. J. R., and Houghton, P. J. (2003). Plants used in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine for improvement of memory and cognitive function. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 75, 513-527. doi: 10.1016/S0091-3057(03)00128-X
26. Hysek, C. M., Simmler, L. D., Schillinger, N., Meyer, N., Schmid, Y., Donzelli, M., et al. (2014). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of methylphenidate and MDMA administered alone or in combination. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 17, 371-381. doi: 10.1017/S1461145713001132
27. Ilieva, I. P., and Farah, M. J. (2013). Enhancement stimulants: perceived motivational and cognitive advantages. Front. Neurosci. 7:198. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00198
28. Ilieva, I. P., and Farah, M. J. (2015). Attention, motivation, and study habits in users of unprescribed ADHD medication. J. Atten. Disord. doi: 10.1177/1087054715591849 [Epub ahead of print]
29. Kayser, B., and Smith, A. C. (2008). Globalisation of anti-doping: the reverse side of the medal. BMJ 337:a584. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a584
30. Kelly, G. A. (2003). "A brief introduction to personal construct theory," in International Handbook of Personal Construct Psychology, ed. F. Fay (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons), 3-20
31. Ketchum, F. B. (2013). Rethinking "cognitive" enhancement: the ethical stakes of user perspectives. AJOB Neurosci. 4, 26-27. doi: 10.1080/21507740.2012.748705
32. Lambert, E. Y. (ed.) (1990). Collection and Interpretation of Data From Hidden Populations. NIDA Research Monograph 98. Rockville: National Institute on Drug Abuse
33. Levinson, J., and McKinney, K. A. (2013). Consuming an edge: ADHD, stimulant use, and psy culture at the corporate university. Transcult. Psychiatry 50, 371-396. doi: 10.1177/1363461513490720
34. Loe, M. (2008). The prescription of a new generation. Contexts 7, 46-49. doi: 10.1525/ctx.2008.7.2.46
35. Lucke, J. C. (2012). Empirical research on attitudes toward cognitive enhancement is essential to inform policy and practice guidelines. AJOB Primary Res. 3, 58-60. doi: 10.1080/21507716.2011.645268
36. Maher, B. (2008). Poll results: look who's doping. Nature 452, 674-675. doi: 10.1038/452674a
37. Maier, L. J., and Schaub, M. P. (2015). The use of prescription drugs and drugs of abuse for neuroenhancement in Europe. Euro. Psychol. 20, 155-166. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000228
38. McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., and Wechsler, H. (2005). Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction 100, 96-106. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x
39. Müller, C. P., and Schumann, G. (2011). Drugs as instruments: a new framework for non-addictive psychoactive drug use. Behav. Brain Sci. 34, 293-310. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X11000057
40. Novak, S. P., Kroutil, L. A., Williams, R. L., and Van Brunt, D. L. (2007). The nonmedical use of prescription ADHD medications: results from a national internet panel. Subst. Abuse Treat. Prev. Policy 2:32. doi: 10.1186/1747-597X-2-32
41. O'Brien, K., Chatwin, C., Jenkins, C., and Measham, F. (2015). New psychoactive substances and British drug policy: a view from the cyber-psychonauts. Drugs Educ. Preven. Policy 22, 217-223
42. O'Reilly, M., and Parker, N. (2012). 'Unsatisfactory Saturation': a critical exploration of the notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Qual. Res. 13, 190-197. doi: 10.1177/1468794112446106
43. Partridge, B. J., Bell, S. K., Lucke, J. C., Yeates, S., and Hall, W. D. (2011). Smart drugs "as common as coffee": media hype about neuroenhancement. PLoS ONE 6:e28416. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028416
44. Petersen, M. A., Nørgaard, L. S., and Traulsen, J. M. (2015a). Going to the doctor with enhancement in mind - An ethnographic study of university students' use of prescription stimulants and their moral ambivalence. Drugs Educ. Prevent. Policy 22, 201-207
45. Petersen, M. A., Nørgaard, L. S., and Traulsen, J. M. (2015b). Pursuing pleasures of productivity: university students' use of prescription stimulants for enhancement and the moral uncertainty of making work fun. Cult. Med. Psychiatry 39, 665-679. doi: 10.1007/s11013-015-9457-4
46. Quednow, B. B. (2010). Ethics of neuroenhancement: a phantom debate. BioSocieties 5, 153-156. doi: 10.1057/biosoc.2009.13
47. Quintero, G., and Nichter, M. (2011). "Self-medication, and recreational drug use," in A Companion to Medical Anthropology, Vol. 17, eds M. Singer and P. I. Erickson (Chichester: Blackwell Publishing), 339-350
48. Quintero, G., Peterson, J., and Young, B. (2006). An exploratory study of socio-cultural factors contributing to prescription drug misuse among college students. J. Drug Issues 36, 903-931. doi: 10.1177/002204260603600407
49. Racine, E., and Forlini, C. (2010). Cognitive enhancement, lifestyle choice or misuse of prescription drugs? Neuroethics 3, 1-4. doi: 10.1007/s12152-008-9023-7
50. Ragan, C. I., Bard, I., and Singh, I. (2013). What should we do about student use of cognitive enhancers? An analysis of current evidence. Neuropharmacology 64, 588-595. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.016
51. Repantis, D., Schlattmann, P., Laisney, O., and Heuser, I. (2010). Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol. Res. 62, 187-206. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2010.04.002
52. Ross, D., Kincaid, H., Spurrett, D., and Collins, P. (eds) (2010). What is Addiction? Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
53. Schifano, F., Leoni, M., Martinotti, G., Rawaf, S., and Rovetto, F. (2003). Importance of cyberspace for the assessment of the drug abuse market: preliminary results from the psychonaut 2002 project. CyberPsychology 6, 405-410. doi: 10.1089/109493103322278790
54. Singh, I., Bard, I., and Jackson, J. (2014). Robust resilience and substantial interest: a survey of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among university students in the UK and Ireland. PLoS ONE 9:e105969. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105969
55. Southall, A. (2007). The Other Side of ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Exposed and Explained. Cornwall: Radcliffe Publishing
56. Strauss, A. L., and Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research. Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage
57. Strauss, A. L., and Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Procedures and Techniques for Developing Grounded Theory. London: Sage
58. Varga, M. D. (2012). Adderall abuse on college campuses: a comprehensive literature review. J. Evid Based Soc. Work 9, 293-313. doi: 10.1080/15433714.2010.525402
59. Vargo, E. J., James, R. A., Agyeman, K., MacPhee, T., McIntyre, R., Ronca, F., et al. (2014). Perceptions of assisted cognitive and sport performance enhancement among university students in England. Perform. Enhance. Health 3, 66-77. doi: 10.1016/j.peh.2015.02.001
60. Vrecko, S. (2013). Just how cognitive is 'cognitive enhancement'? On the significance of emotions in university students' experiences with study drugs. AJOB Neurosci. 4, 4-12. doi: 10.1080/21507740.2012.740141
61. Wiegel, C., Sattler, S., Göritz, A. S., and Diewald, M. (2015). Work-related stress and cognitive enhancement among university teachers. Anxiety Stress Coping 29, 100-117. doi: 10.1080/10615806.2015.1025764
62. Wilens, T. E., Adler, L. A., Adams, J., Sgambati, S., Rotrosen, J., Sawtelle, R., et al. (2008). Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 47, 21-31. doi: 10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56f1
63. Wolff, W., and Brand, R. (2013). Subjective stressors in school and their relation to neuroenhancement: a behavioral perspective on students' everyday life. Subst. Abuse Treat. Prev. Policy 8:23. doi: 10.1186/1747-597X-8-23
64. Wolff, W., Brand, R., Baumgarten, F., Lösel, J., and Ziegler, M. (2014). Modeling students instrumental (mis-) use of substances to enhance cognitive performance: neuroenhancement in the light of job demands-resources theory. Biopsychosoc. Med. 8:12. doi: 10.1186/1751-0759-8-12
65. Zinberg, N. E. (1984). Drug, Set, and Setting. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press