The Hispanic health paradox: From epidemiological phenomenon to contribution opportunities for psychological science

Group Processes and Intergroup Relations

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 462-476

  Ruiz, John M ^a   Hamann, Heidi A ^a   Mehl, Matthias R ^a   O’Connor, Mary Frances ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

health disparities; Hispanic paradox; Hispanic Latino; mortality; race ethnicity

Indexed keywords

EID: 84973466881     PISSN: 13684302     EISSN: 14617188     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1368430216638540     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. A.F.Abraido-LanzaB.P.DohrenwendD.S.Ng-MakJ.B.Turner (1999). The Latino mortality paradox: A test of the “salmon bias” and healthy migrant hypotheses. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1543–1548. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1508801/pdf/amjph00010-0085.pdf
2. C.M.ArceB.A.GoldsteinA.A.MitaniW.C.Winkelmayer (2013). Trends in relative mortality between Hispanic and non-Hispanic Whites initiating dialysis: A retrospective study of the US renal data system. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 62, 312–321. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.02.375
3. E.AriasK.EschbachW.S.SchaumanE.L.BacklundP.D.Sorlie (2010). The Hispanic morality advantage and ethnic misclassification on US death certificates. American Journal of Public Health, 100, S171–S177. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.135863
4. L.F.BerkmanT.Glass (2000). Social integration, social networks, social support, and health. In (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 137–173). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
5. W.BirminghamB.N.UchinoT.W.SmithK.C.LightD.M.Sanbonmatsu (2009). Social ties and cardiovascular function: An examination of relationship positivity and negativity during stress. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 74, 114–119. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.08.002
6. J.BondL.A.KaskutasC.Weisner (2003). The persistent influence of social networks and Alcoholics Anonymous on abstinence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 579–588. doi:10.15288/jsa.2003.64.579
7. K.F.BrookfieldM.C.CheungJ.LucciL.E.FlemingL.G.Koniaris (2009). Disparities in survival among women with invasive cervical cancer: A problem of access to care. Cancer, 115, 166–178. doi:10.1002/cncr.24007
8. J.T.CacioppoS.Cacioppo (2014). Social relationships and health: The toxic effects of perceived social isolation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 58–72. doi:10.1111/spc3.12087
9. B.CamposC.D.SchetterC.M.AbdouC.J.HobelL.M.GlynnC.A.Sandman (2008). Familialism, social support, and stress: Positive implications for pregnant Latinas. Culture, Diversity, and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 155–162. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.155
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). No usual source of health care among adults. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/health_policy/adults_no_source_health_care.htm
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Deaths: Final data for 2013, Table 7. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/life-expectancy.htm
12. Y.ChoW.P.FrisbieR.A.HummerR.G.Rogers (2004). Nativity, duration of residence, and the health of Hispanic adults in the United States. International Migration Review, 38, 184–211. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=rfgSZsAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=rfgSZsAAAAAJ:W7OEmFMy1HYC
13. S.Cohen (2004). Social relationships and health. American Psychologist, 59, 676–684. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.676
14. S.CohenW.J.DoyleD.P.SkonerB.S.RabinJ.M.GwaltneyJr. (1997). Social ties and susceptibility to the common cold. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 1940–1944. doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540480040036
15. S.CohenD.Janicki-DevertsR.B.TurnerW.J.Doyle (2015). Does hugging provide stress-buffering social support? A study of susceptibility to upper respiratory infection and illness. Psychological Science, 26, 135–147. doi:10.1177/0956797614559284
16. S.L.ColbyJ.M.Ortman (2015). Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. population: 2014 to 2060. Population estimates and projections. U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf
17. J.W.CollinsJr.G.R.SoskolneK.M.RankinA.C.Bennett (2013). Differing first year mortality rates of term births to White, African American, and Mexican-American US-born and foreign-born mothers. Maternal Child Health Journal, 17, 1776–1783. doi:10.1007/s10995-012-1197-2
18. M.Cortes-BergoderiK.GoelM.H.MuradT.AllisonV.K.SomersP.J.ErwinF..Lopez-Jimenez (2013). Cardiovascular mortality in Hispanics compared to non-Hispanic Whites: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Hispanic paradox. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 24, 791–799. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2013.09.003
19. County of San Diego, Health and Human Services Agency, Public Health Services, & Community Health Statistics Unity. (2010). 3–4–50 chronic disease deaths in San Diego County. Retrieved from http://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/dam/sdc/hhsa/programs/phs/documents/CHS-3–4–50SanDiegoCounty2010.pdf
20. I.CuellarB.ArnoldR.Maldonado (1995). Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II: A revision of the original ARSMA scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17, 275–304. doi:10.1177/07399863950173001
21. M.L.DaviglusG.A.TalaveraM.L.Aviles-SantaM.AllisonJ.CaiM.H.CriquiJ..Stamler (2012). Prevalence of major cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular diseases among Hispanic/Latino individuals of diverse backgrounds in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association, 308, 1775–1784. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.14517
22. C.DeNavas-WaltB.D.ProctorJ.C.Smith (2013). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2012 (Current population reports). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf
23. C.E.DetillionT.K.CraftE.R.GlasperB.J.PrendergastA.C.DeVries (2004). Social facilitation of wound healing. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1004–1011. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.10.003
24. J.E.DeVoeG.E.FryerR.PhillipsL.A.Green (2003). Receipt of preventive care among adults: Insurance and usual source of care. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 786–791. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447840/
25. J.E.DeVoeC.J.TillotsonL.S.WallaceS.E.LeskoN.Pandhi (2012). Is health insurance enough? A usual source of care may be more important to ensure a child receives preventive health counselling. Maternal Child Health Journal, 16, 306–315. doi:10.1007/s10995-011-1762-4
26. K.M.DumaisA.H.Veenema (2015). Vasopressin and oxytocin receptor systems in the brain: Sex differences and sex-specific regulation of social behaviors. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 40, 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.yfme.2015.04.003
27. A.M.El-SayedM.M.PaczkowskiD.MarchS.Galea (2014). Trends in the Mexican infant mortality paradox over the past two decades. Annals of Epidemiology, 24, 831–836. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.09.005
28. G.L.Engel (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196, 129–136.
29. R.FangX.Li (2015). Electronic messaging support service programs improve adherence to lipid-lowering therapy among outpatients with coronary artery disease: An exploratory randomized control study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 25, 664–671. doi:10.1111/jocn.12988
30. K.FiscellaP.FranksM.P.DoescherB.G.Saver (2002). Disparities in health care by race, ethnicity, and language among the insured: Findings from a national sample. Medical Care, 40, 52–59.
31. M.E.FloresS.E.SimonsenT.A.ManuckJ.M.DyerD.K.Turok (2012). The “Latina epidemiologic paradox.” Contrasting patterns of adverse birth outcomes in U.S.-born and foreign-born Latinas. Women’s Health Issues, 22, e501–e507. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2012.07.005
32. D.L.FrankenfieldM.V.RoccoS.H.RomanW.M.McClellan (2003). Survival advantage for adult Hispanic hemodialysis patients? Findings from the end-stage renal disease Clinical Performance Measures Project. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 14, 180–186. doi:10.1097/01.ASN.0000037400.83593.E6
33. G.E.FryerS.M.DoveyL.A.Green (2000). The importance of having a usual source of health care. American Family Physician, 62, 477.
34. L.C.GalloF.J.PenedoE.de los MonterosW.Arguelles (2009). Resiliency in the face of disadvantage: Do Hispanic cultural characteristics protect health outcomes?Journal of Personality, 77, 1707–1746. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00598.x
35. M.A.GarciaJ.L.AngelR.J.AngelC.T.ChiuJ.Melvin (2015). Acculturation, gender, and active life expectancy in the Mexican-origin population. Journal of Aging and Health, 27, 1247–1265. doi:10.1177/0898264315577880
36. J.E.GauglerM.ReeseJ.Sauld (2015). A pilot evaluation of psychosocial support for family caregivers of relatives with dementia in long-term care: The Residential Care Transition Module. Research in Gerontological Nursing, 8, 161–172. doi:10.3928/19404921-20150304-01
37. S.M.GrundyH.B.BrewerJr.J.I.CleemanS.C.SmithJr.C.LenfantNational Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, & American Heart Association. (2004). Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation, 109, 433–438. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000111245.75752.C6
38. S.A.HamB.E.Ainsworth (2010). Disparities in data on Health People 2010 physical activity objectives collected by accelerometry and self-report. American Journal of Public Health, 100, S263–S268. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.180075
39. M.Heron (2015). Deaths: Leading causes for 2012 (National Vital Statistics Report 64). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
40. J.S.HolmesA.K.DriscollM.Heron (2015). Mortality among US-born and immigrant Hispanics in the US: Effects of nativity, duration of residence, and age at immigration. International Journal of Public Health, 60, 609–617. doi:10.1007/s00038-015-0686-7
41. J.Holt-LunstadT.B.SmithJ.B.Layton (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7, e1000316. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
42. J.D.Hovey (2000). Psychosocial predictors of acculturative stress in Mexican immigrants. Journal of Psychology, 134, 490–502. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.3.274
43. K.N.HumesN.JonesR.Ramirez (2011). Overview of race and Hispanic origin: 2010 (2010 Census Briefs). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf
44. R.A.HummerD.A.PowersS.G.PullumG.L.GrossmanW.P.Frisbie (2007). Paradox found (again): Infant mortality among the Mexican-origin population in the United States. Demography, 44, 441–457. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2031221/
45. M.S.KaplanN.HuguetJ.T.NewsomB.H.McFarland (2004). The association between length of residence and obesity among Hispanic immigrants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27, 323–326. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.07.005
46. L.A.KaskutasJ.BondK.Humphreys (2002). Social networks as mediators of the effect of Alcoholics Anonymous. Addition, 97, 891–900. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00118.x
47. T.H.KeeganT.QuachS.ShemaS.L.GlaserS.L.Gomez (2010). The influence of nativity and neighborhoods on breast cancer stage at diagnosis and survival among California Hispanic women. BMC Cancer, 10, 603. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-10-603
48. K.K.KondoJ.S.RossiS.J.SchwartzB.L.ZamboangaC.D.Scalf (2015). Acculturation and cigarette smoking in Hispanic women: A meta-analysis. Ethnicity and Substance Abuse, 15, 46–72. doi:10.1080/15332640.2014.1002878
49. G.LopezE.Patten (2015). The impact of slowing immigration: Foreign-born share falls among 14 largest U.S. Hispanic origin groups. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2015/09/2015-09-15_hispanic-origin-profiles-summary-report_FINAL.pdf
50. K.S.Markides (1983). Mortality among minority populations: A review of recent patterns and trends. Public Health Reports, 98, 252–260.
51. K.S.MarkidesJ.Coreil (1986). The health of Hispanics in the Southwestern United States: An epidemiologic paradox. Public Health Reports, 101, 253–265. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1477704/pdf/pubhealthrep00183-0027.pdf
52. S.J.MarshallD.A.JonesD.A.AinsworthJ.P.ReisS.S.LevyC.A.Macera (2007). Race/ethnicity, social class, and leisure-time physical inactivity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 44–51. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000239401.16381.37
53. L.M.MartireM.M.Franks (2014). The role of social networks in adult health: Introduction to the special issue. Health Psychology, 33, 501–504. doi:10.1037/hea0000103
54. M.R.MehlM.L.RobbinsF.G.Deters (2012). Naturalistic observation of health-relevant social processes: The electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74, 410–417. doi:10.1037/hea0000103
55. J.D.Morenoff (2003). Neighborhood mechanisms and the spatial dynamics of birth weight. American Journal of Sociology, 108, 976–1017. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/374405
56. D.MozaffarianE.J.BenjaminA.S.GoD.K.ArnettM.J.BlahaM.Cushman.. American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. (2015). Heart disease and stroke statistics—2015 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 131, e29–e322. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000152
57. L.M.NackersP.J.DubyakX.LuS.D.AntonG.R.DuttonM.G.Perri (2015). Group dynamics are associated with weight loss in the behavioral treatment of obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring), 23, 1563–1569. doi:10.1002/oby.21148
58. S.B.NicholasK.Kalantar-ZadehK.C.Norris (2013). Racial disparities in kidney disease outcomes. Seminars in Nephrology, 33, 409–415. doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2013.07.002
59. S.Oboler (1995). Ethnic labels, Latin lives: Identity and the politics of (re)presentation in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
60. A.O’DonovanB.M.Hughes (2007). Access to social support in life and in the laboratory: Combined impact on cardiovascular reactivity to stress and state anxiety. Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 1147–1156. doi:10.1177/1359105308095968
61. C.L.OgdenM.D.CarrollB.K.KitK.M.Flegal (2014). Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011–2012. JAMA, 311, 806–814. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.732
62. M.I.PatelC.W.SchuppS.L.GomezE.T.ChangH.A.Wakelee (2013). How do social factors explain outcomes in non-small-cell lung cancer among Hispanics in California? Explaining the Hispanic paradox. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 31, 3572–3578. doi:10.1200/JCO.2012.48.6217
63. Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, 42 U.S.C. § 18001 (2010).
64. K.L.PhillipsD.A.ChiribogaY.Jang (2012). Satisfaction with care: The role of patient–provider racial/ethnic concordance and interpersonal sensitivity. Journal of Aging and Health, 24, 1079–1090. doi:10.1177/0898264312453068
65. D.A.Powers (2013). Paradox revisited: A further investigation of racial/ethnic differences in infant mortality rates by maternal age. Demography, 30, 495–520. doi:10.1007/s13524-012-0152-6
66. N.Ramírez-EsparzaM.R.MehlJ.Álvarez BermúdezJ.W.Pennebaker (2009). Are Mexicans more or less sociable than Americans? Insights from a naturalistic observation study. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.002
67. S.Ramisetty-MiklerR.CaetanoL.A.Rodriguez (2010). The Hispanic Americans Baseline Alcohol Survey (HABLAS): Alcohol consumption and sociodemographic predictors across Hispanic national groups. Journal of Substance Use, 15, 402–416. doi:10.3109/14659891003706357
68. S.RinderleD.Montoya (2008). Hispanic/Latino identity labels: An examination of cultural values and personal experiences. The Howard Journal of Communications, 19, 144–164. doi:10.1080/10646170801990953
69. F.RiosmenaJ.A.Dennis (2012). Importation, SES-selective acculturation, and the weaker SES-health gradients of Mexican immigrants in the United States. Social Science Journal, 49, 325–329.
70. M.H.RobertsR.R.KlatzkinB.Mechlin (2015). Social support attenuates physiological stress responses and experimental pain sensitivity to cold pressor pain. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49, 557–569. doi:10.1007/s12160-015-9686-3
71. T.F.RoblesR.B.SlatcherJ.M.TrombelloM.M.McGinn (2014). Marital quality and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 140–187. doi:10.1037/a0031859
72. C.X.RomeroJ.K.DukeD.DabeleaT.E.RomeroL.G.Ogden (2012). Does the epidemiologic paradox hold in the presence of risk factors for low birth weight infants among Mexican-born women in Colorado?Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 23, 604–614. doi:10.1353/hpu.2012.0065
73. J.M.RuizB.CamposJ.J.Garcia (in press). Latino physical health: Disparities, paradoxes, and future directions. Journal of Latina/o Psychology.
74. J.M.RuizJ.G.HutchinsonA.Terrill (2008). For better and worse: Social influences on coronary heart disease. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1400–1414. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00108.x
75. J.M.RuizP.SteffenT.B.Smith (2013). The Hispanic mortality paradox: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the longitudinal literature. American Journal of Public Health, 103, e52–60. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301103
76. S.SahaJ.J.ArbelaezL.A.Cooper (2003). Patient–physician relationships and racial disparities in the quality of health care. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1713–1719.
77. D.A.SbarraR.W.LawR.M.Portley (2011). Divorce and death: A meta-analysis and research agenda for clinical, social, and health psychology. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 6, 454–474. doi:10.1177/1745691611414724
78. R.J.ShawK.E.Pickett (2013). The health benefits of Hispanic communities for non-Hispanic mothers annd infants: Another Hispanic paradox. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 1052–1057. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300985
79. R.J.ShawK.E.PickettR.G.Wilkinson (2010). Ethnic density effects on birth outcomes and maternal smoking during pregnancy in the US linked birth and infant death data set. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 707–713. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.167114
80. E.ShorD.J.RoelfsT.Yogev (2013). The strength of family ties: A meta-analysis and meta-regression of self-reported social support and mortality. Social Networks, 35, 626–638. doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2013.08.004
81. R.L.SiegelS.A.FedewaK.D.MillerA.Goding-SauerP.S.PinheiroD.Martinez-TysonA.Jemal (2015). Cancer statistics for Hispanics/Latinos, 2015. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 65, 457–480. doi:10.3322/caac.21314
82. A.SigneS.Elmstahl (2008). Psychosocial intervention for family caregivers of people with dementia reduces caregiver’s burden: Development and effect after 6 and 12 months. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 22, 98–109. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00498.x
83. D.SimmonsA.T.PrevostC.BunnD.HolmanR.A.ParkerS.CohnJ..Graffy (2015). Impact of community based peer support in Type 2 diabetes: A cluster randomized controlled trial of individual and/or group approaches. PLoS One, 10, e0120277. doi:101371/journal.pone.0120277
84. E.C.SmithA.ZiogasH.Anton-Culver (2013). Delay in surgical treatment and survival after breast cancer diagnosis in young women by race/ethnicity. JAMA Surgery, 148, 516–523. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2013.1680
85. T.W.SmithJ.M.RuizJ.M.CundiffK.G.BaronJ.B.Nealey-Moore (2013). Optimism and pessimism in social contexts: An interpersonal perspective on resilience and risk. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 553–562.
86. R.SteplerA.Brown (2015). Statistical portrait of Hispanics in the United States, 1980–2013. Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/05/12/statistical-portrait-of-hispanics-in-the-united-states-2013-key-charts/
87. S.StringhiniL.BerkmanA.DugravotJ.E.FerrieM.MarmotM.KivimakiA.Singh-Manoux (2012). Socioeconomic status, structural and functional measures of social support, and mortality: The British Whitehall II Cohort Study, 1985–2009. American Journal of Epidemiology, 175, 1275–1283. doi:10.1093/aje/kwr461
88. P.TaylorJ.PasselR.FryR.MorinW.WangG.VelascoD.Dockterman (2010). The return of the multi-generational family household. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/752-multi-generational-families.pdf
89. G.M.Turner-McGrievyD.F.Tate (2013). Weight loss social support in 140 characters or less: Use of an online social network in a remotely delivered weight loss intervention. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 3, 287–294. doi:10.1007/s13142-012-0183-y
90. U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). America’s families and living arrangements: 2012: Average number of people (AVG Table Series). Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2012AVG.html
91. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2011). HHS action plan to reduce racial and ethnic health disparities: A nation free of disparities in health and healthcare. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/npa/files/plans/hhs/hhs_plan_complete.pdf
92. U.S. Renal Data System. (2010). Annual data report: Atlas of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
93. C.ValdovinosF.J.PenedoC.R.IsasiM.JungR.C.KaplanR.Espinoza GiacintoH.A..Greenlee (2015). Perceived discrimination and cancer screening behaviors in US Hispanics: Hispanic community health study/study of Latinos sociocultural ancillary study. Cancer Causes and Control. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10552-015-0679-0
94. N.VonneilichK.H.JockelR.ErbelJ.KleinN.DraganoJ.Siegrist.. Heinz Nixdorf Investigator Group. (2012). The mediating effect of social relationships on the association between socioeconomic status and subjective health – Results from the Heinz Nixdorf Recall cohort study. BMC Public Health, 12, 285.
95. L.J.WeissJ.Blustein (1996). Faithful patients: The effect of long-term physician–patient relationships on the cost and use of health care by older Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1742–1747. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1380727/pdf/amjph00523-0064.pdf
96. Y.YangV.ThumulaP.F.PaceB.F.BanahanIIIN.E.WilkinW.B.Lobb (2009). Predictors of medication nonadherence among patients with diabetes in Medicare Part D programs: A retrospective cohort study. Clinical Therapeutics, 31, 2178–2188. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2009.10.002
97. M.S.YoderR.LaPerrière de Gutiérrez (2004). Neighborhoods: Distinctiveness and diversity in a majority-Hispanic place. In (Ed.), Hispanic spaces, Latino places (pp. 55–76). Austin: University of Texas Press.