Socioeconomic Inequalities in Neglected Tropical Diseases: A Systematic Review

PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases

Volumn 10, Issue 5, 2016, Pages

  Houweling, Tanja A J ^a   Karim Kos, Henrike E ^a   Kulik, Margarete C ^a,b   Stolk, Wilma A ^a   Haagsma, Juanita A ^a   Lenk, Edeltraud J ^c   Richardus, Jan Hendrik ^a   de Vlas, Sake J ^a  

^a ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; CHAGAS DISEASE; DISEASE CONTROL; HELMINTHIASIS; HUMAN; LEPROSY; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; NEGLECTED DISEASE; ONCHOCERCIASIS; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; REVIEW; SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM; SCHISTOSOMA JAPONICUM; SCHISTOSOMIASIS MANSONI; SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH; SOCIOECONOMICS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TRACHOMA; VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS; CHILD; ELEPHANTIASIS, FILARIAL; LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL; NEGLECTED DISEASES; PARASITOLOGY; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SOCIAL CLASS; SOIL; TROPICAL MEDICINE;

SOIL;

CHAGAS DISEASE; CHILD; ELEPHANTIASIS, FILARIAL; HUMANS; LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL; LEPROSY; NEGLECTED DISEASES; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SOCIAL CLASS; SOIL; TROPICAL MEDICINE;

EID: 84971656627     PISSN: 19352727     EISSN: 19352735     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004546     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Stolk W, Kulik M, le Rutte E, Jacobson J, Richardus J, de Vlas S, et al. Between-country inequalities in the neglected tropical disease burden in 1990 and 2010, with projections for 2020. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016. In press. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004560
2. Hotez PJ, The Disease Next Door. Foreign Policy. 2013;March25.
3. Aagaard-Hansen J, Chaignat CL, Blas E, Sivasankara Kurup A, Neglected tropical diseases: equity and social determinants. In: Equity, social determinants and public health programmesGeneva: World Health Organization; 2010. p. 135–57.
4. Lenk EJ, Redekop WK, Luyendijk M, Rijnsburger AJ, Severens JL, Productivity Loss Related to Neglected Tropical Diseases Eligible for Preventive Chemotherapy: A Systematic Literature Review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(2):e0004397. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.000439726890487; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4758606.
5. Pullan RL, Bethony JM, Geiger SM, Cundill B, Correa-Oliveira R, Quinnell RJ, et al. Human helminth co-infection: Analysis of spatial patterns and risk factors in a Brazilian community. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2(12): e352. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000352 PubMed PMID: 986.
6. Abou-Zeid AHA, Abkar TA, Mohamed RO, Schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths among an adult population in a war affected area, Southern Kordofan state, Sudan. Parasites Vectors. 2012;5(1). doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-133 PubMed PMID: 155.
7. Imbiriba EN, Silva Neto AL, Souza WV, Pedrosa V, Cunha MG, Garnelo L, Social inequality, urban growth and leprosy in Manaus: a spatial approach. Rev Saude Publica. 2009;43(4):656–65. PubMed PMID: 503.
8. Sales AM, Ponce de Leon A, Duppre NC, Hacker MA, Nery JAC, Sarno EN, et al. Leprosy among patient contacts: A multilevel study of risk factors. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(3): e1013. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001013 PubMed PMID: 1873.
9. Houweling TA, Kunst AE, Socio-economic inequalities in childhood mortality in low and middle income countries: a review of the international evidence. British Medical Bulletin. 2010;93(1):7–26.
10. Commission on Social Determinants of HealthClosing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final Report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008. http://www.who.int/social_determinants/final_report/en/.
11. Mosley WH, Chen LC, An analytical framework for the study of child survival in developing countries: Child Survival: Strategies for Research. Population and Development Review. 1984;10, Suppl.:25–45.
12. Bartley M, Health Inequality: An Introduction to Theories, Concepts and Methods. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2004.
13. Evans T, Whitehead M, Diderichsen F, Bhuiya A, Wirth M, Challenging inequities in health: From ethics to action. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001.
14. Houweling TAJ. Socio-economic inequalities in childhood mortality in low and middle income countries [PhD thesis]. Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1765/11023.
15. Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP, Measuring Socio-economic inequalities in health. Copenhagen: WHO, Regional Office for Europe, 1994.
16. Filmer D, Pritchett L. Estimating Wealth Effects without Expenditure Data—or Tears: An Application to Educational Enrollment in States of India; WB Policy Research Working Paper No. 1994. Washington DC: Development Economics Research Group (DECRC) The World Bank, 1998 September 1. Report No.
17. Da Rocha Lucena A, Cruz AAV, Akaishi P, Epidemiology of trachoma in the village of Araripe plateau—Ceara State. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2010;73(3):271–5. doi: 10.1590/s0004-27492010000300012 PubMed PMID: 2278.
18. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P, Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.100009719621072; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2707599.
19. Kumar KNV, Ramaiah KD, Usage of personal-protection measures against mosquitoes and the low prevalences of Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaraemia in the Indian city of Chennai. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2008;102(5):391–7. doi: 10.1179/136485908x278892 PubMed PMID: 705.
20. Upadhyayula SM, Mutheneni SR, Kadiri MR, Kumaraswamy S, Nagalla B, A cohort study of lymphatic filariasis on socio economic conditions in Andhra Pradesh, India. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(3): e33779. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033779 PubMed PMID: 138.
21. Mwakitalu ME, Malecela MN, Pedersen EM, Mosha FW, Simonsen PE, Urban lymphatic filariasis in the metropolis of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Parasit Vectors. 2013;6(1):286. 24289718.
22. Mwakitalu ME, Malecela MN, Pedersen EM, Mosha FW, Simonsen PE, Urban lymphatic filariasis in the city of Tanga, Tanzania, after seven rounds of mass drug administration. Acta Trop. 2013; 128(3):692–700. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.10.004 PubMed PMID: 274.
23. Ugbomoiko US, Ofoezie IE, Okoye IC, Heukelbach J, Factors associated with urinary schistosomiasis in two peri-urban communities in south-western Nigeria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2010;104(5):409–19. doi: 10.1179/136485910x12743554760469 PubMed PMID: 215.
24. Peng WX, Tao B, Clements A, Jiang QL, Zhang ZJ, Zhou YB, et al. Identifying high-risk areas of schistosomiasis and associated risk factors in the Poyang Lake region, China. Parasitology. 2010;137(7):1099–107. doi: 10.1017/s003118200999206x PubMed PMID: 1237.
25. Steinmann P, Zhou XN, Li YL, Li HJ, Chen SR, Yang Z, et al. Helminth infections and risk factor analysis among residents in Eryuan county, Yunnan province, China. Acta Trop. 2007;104(1):38–51. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.07.003 PubMed PMID: 399.
26. Steinmann P, Zhou XN, Matthys B, Li YL, Li HJ, Chen SR, et al. Spatial risk profiling of Schistosoma japonicum in Eryuan county, Yunnan province, China. Geospat Health. 2007;2(1):59–73. PubMed PMID: 2777.
27. Xu JF, Xu J, Li SZ, Jia TW, Huang XB, Zhang HM, et al. Transmission Risks of Schistosomiasis Japonica: Extraction from Back-propagation Artificial Neural Network and Logistic Regression Model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(3): e2123. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002123 PubMed PMID: 141.
28. Yang J, Zhao Z, Li Y, Krewski D, Wen SW, A multi-level analysis of risk factors for Schistosoma japonicum infection in China. Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(6):e407–e12. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2009.02.005 PubMed PMID: 782.
29. Khalid A, Abdelgadir MA, Ashmaig A, Ibrahim AM, Ahmed AAM, Adam I, Schistosoma mansoni infection among prenatal attendees at a secondary-care hospital in central Sudan. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2012;116(1):10–2. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.08.018 PubMed PMID: 1334.
30. Matthys B, Tschannen AB, Tian-Bi NT, Comoe H, Diabate S, Traore M, et al. Risk factors for Schistosoma mansoni and hookworm in urban farming communities in western Cote d'Ivoire. Trop Med Int Health. 2007;12(6):709–23. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01841.x PubMed PMID: 129.
31. Raso G, Matthys B, N'Goran EK, Tanner M, Vounatsou P, Utzinger J, Spatial risk prediction and mapping of Schistosoma mansoni infections among schoolchildren living in western Cote d'Ivoire. Parasitology. 2005;131(1):97–108. doi: 10.1017/s0031182005007432 PubMed PMID: 1305.
32. Raso G, Utzinger J, Silue KD, Ouattara M, Yapi A, Toty A, et al. Disparities in parasitic infections, perceived ill health and access to health care among poorer and less poor schoolchildren of rural Cote d'Ivoire. Trop Med Int Health. 2005;10(1):42–57. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01352.x PubMed PMID: 203.
33. Raso G, Vounatsou P, Singer BH, N'Goran EK, Tanner M, Utzinger J, An integrated approach for risk profiling and spatial prediction of Schistosoma mansoni-hookworm coinfection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(18):6934–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601559103 PubMed PMID: 416.
34. Vounatsou P, Raso G, Tanner M, N'Goran EK, Utzinger J, Bayesian geostatistical modelling for mapping schistosomiasis transmission. PARASITOLOGY. 2009;136(13):1695–705. 19490724. doi: 10.1017/S003118200900599X
35. Kabatereine NB, Standley CJ, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Fleming FM, Stothard JR, Talisuna A, et al. Integrated prevalence mapping of schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis and malaria in lakeside and island communities in Lake Victoria, Uganda. Parasites & Vectors. 2011;4: 232. WOS:000300371700001.
36. Muhumuza S, Kitimbo G, Oryema-Lalobo M, Nuwaha F, Association between socio economic status and schistosomiasis infection in Jinja District, Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2009;14(6):612–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02273.x PubMed PMID: 266.
37. Balen J, Raso G, Li YS, Zhao ZY, Yuan LP, Williams GM, et al. Risk factors for helminth infections in a rural and a peri-urban setting of the Dongting Lake area, People's Republic of China. Int J Parasitol. 2011;41(11):1165–73. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.07.006 PubMed PMID: 60.
38. Wang X, Zhang L, Luo R, Wang G, Chen Y, Medina A, et al. Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections and Correlated Risk Factors in Preschool and School-Aged Children in Rural Southwest China. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(9): e45939. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045939 PubMed PMID: 136.
39. Zhang LX, Cai YP, Wang XB, Ma XC, Medina A, Smith DS, et al. Neglected Rural Public Health Issue: The Case of Intestinal Roundworms. China & World Economy. 2013;21(3):25–43. WOS:000319212800003.
40. Traub RJ, Robertson ID, Irwin P, Mencke N, Thompson RCA, The prevalence, intensities and risk factors associated with geohelminth infection in tea-growing communities of Assam, India. Trop Med Int Health. 2004;9(6):688–701. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01252.x PubMed PMID: 333.
41. Wani S, Ahmad F, Intestinal helminths and associated risk factors in children of district Pulwama, Kashmir, India. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2009;27(1):81–2. PubMed PMID: 4721.
42. Wani SA, Ahmad F, Zargar SA, Ahmad Z, Ahmad P, Tak H, Prevalence of intestinal parasites and associated risk factors among schoolchildren in Srinagar City, Kashmir, India. J PARASITOL. 2007;93(6):1541–3. 18314713. doi: 10.1645/GE-1255.1
43. Mihrshahi S, Casey GJ, Montresor A, Phuc TQ, Thach DTC, Tien NT, et al. The effectiveness of 4 monthly albendazole treatment in the reduction of soil-transmitted helminth infections in women of reproductive age in Viet Nam. Int J Parasitol. 2009;39(9):1037–43. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.01.013 PubMed PMID: 385.
44. Pham-Duc P, Nguyen-Viet H, Hattendorf J, Zinsstag J, Phung-Dac C, Zurbrugg C, et al. Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections associated with wastewater and human excreta use in agriculture in Vietnam. Parasitol Int. 2013;62(2):172–80. doi: 10.1016/j.parint.2012.12.007 PubMed PMID: 220.
45. Trang DT, Molbak K, Cam PD, Dalsgaard A, Helminth infections among people using wastewater and human excreta in peri-urban agriculture and aquaculture in Hanoi, Vietnam. Trop Med Int Health. 2007;12(SUPPL. 2):82–90. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01945.x PubMed PMID: 415.
46. Trang DT, van der Hoek W, Cam PD, Vinh KT, Van Hoa N, Dalsgaard A, Low risk for helminth infection in wastewater-fed rice cultivation in Vietnam. J Water Health. 2006;4(3):321–31. doi: 10.2166/wh.2006.013 PubMed PMID: 154.
47. Uga S, Hoa NTV, Thuan LK, Noda S, Fujimaki Y, Intestinal parasitic infections in schoolchildren in a suburban area of Hanoi, Vietnam. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005;36(6):1407–11. PubMed PMID: 3682.
48. Hesham Al-Mekhlafi M, Surin J, Atiya AS, Ariffin WA, Mohammed Mahdy AK, Che Abdullah H, Pattern and predictors of soil-transmitted helminth reinfection among aboriginal schoolchildren in rural Peninsular Malaysia. Acta Trop. 2008;107(2):200–4. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.05.022 PubMed PMID: 114.
49. Hesham Al-Mekhlafi MS, Atiya AS, Lim YAL, Mohammed Mahdy AK, Wan Ariffin WA, Che Abdullah H, et al. An unceasing problem: Soil-transmitted helminthiases in rural Malaysian communities. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2007;38(6):998–1007. PubMed PMID: 205.
50. Ngui R, Ishak S, Chuen CS, Mahmud R, Lim YAL, Prevalence and risk factors of intestinal parasitism in rural and remote West Malaysia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(3): e974. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000974 PubMed PMID: 1337.
51. Ekpo UF, Odoemene SN, Mafiana CF, Sam-Wobo SO, Helminthiasis and hygiene conditions of schools in Ikenne, Ogun State, Nigeria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2(1): e146. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000146 PubMed PMID: 282.
52. Kirwan P, Asaolu SO, Abiona TC, Jackson AL, Smith HV, Holland CV, Soil-transmitted helminth infections in Nigerian children aged 0–25 months. J HELMINTHOL. 2009;83(3):261–6. 19356265. doi: 10.1017/S0022149X08201252
53. Ugbomoiko US, Dalumo V, Ofoezie IE, Obiezue RNN, Socio-environmental factors and ascariasis infection among school-aged children in Ilobu, Osun State, Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103(3):223–8. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.12.014 PubMed PMID: 406.
54. Brooker S, Jardim-Botelho A, Quinnell RJ, Geiger SM, Caldas IR, Fleming F, et al. Age-related changes in hookworm infection, anaemia and iron deficiency in an area of high Necator americanus hookworm transmission in south-eastern Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007;101(2):146–54. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.05.012 PubMed PMID: 702.
55. Carvalho-Costa FA, Goncalves AQ, Lassance SL, Da Silva Neto LM, Salmazo CAA, Boia MN, Giardia lamblia and other intestinal parasitic infections and their relationships with nutritional status in children in Brazilian Amazon. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2007;49(3):147–53. PubMed PMID: 1904.
56. Cundill B, Alexander N, Bethony JM, Diemert D, Pullan RL, Brooker S, Rates and intensity of re-infection with human helminths after treatment and the influence of individual, household, and environmental factors in a Brazilian community. Parasitology. 2011;138(11):1406–16. doi: 10.1017/s0031182011001132 PubMed PMID: 1200.
57. de Carvalho TB, de Carvalho LR, Mascarini LM, Occurrence of enteroparasites in day care centers in Botucatu (Sao Paulo State, Brazil) with emphasis on Cryptosporidium sp., Giardia duodenalis and Enterobius vermicularis. REV INST MED TROP SAO PAULO. 2006;48(5):269–73. 17086314.
58. Fonseca EOL, Teixeira MG, Barreto ML, Carmo EH, Coasta MCN, Prevalence and factors associated with geohelminth infections in children living in municipalities with low HDI in North and Northeast Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2010;26(1):143–52. PubMed PMID: 508.
59. Lander RL, Lander AG, Houghton L, Williams SM, Costa-Ribeiro H, Barreto DL, et al. Factors influencing growth and intestinal parasitic infections in preschoolers attending philanthropic daycare centers in Salvador, Northeast Region of Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28(11):2177–88. doi: 10.1590/s0102-311x2012001100017 PubMed PMID: 1504.
60. Maia MMM, Fausto MA, Vieira ELM, Benetton MLFN, Carneiro M, Intestinal parasitic infection and associated risk factors, among children presenting at outpatient clinics in Manaus, Amazonas state, Brazil. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2009;103(7):583–91. doi: 10.1179/000349809x12459740922417 PubMed PMID: 946.
61. Scholte RGC, Schur N, Bavia ME, Carvalho EM, Chammartin F, Utzinger J, et al. Spatial analysis and risk mapping of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Brazil, using Bayesian geostatistical models. Geospat Health. 2013;8(1):97–110. 24258887.
62. Valverde JG, Gomes-Silva A, de Carvalho CJM, de Souza DL, Jaeger LH, Martins PP, et al. Prevalence and epidemiology of intestinal parasitism, as revealed by three distinct techniques in an endemic area in the Brazilian Amazon. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2011;105(6):413–24. doi: 10.1179/1364859411y.0000000034 PubMed PMID: 143.
63. Parajuli RP, Umezaki M, Watanabe C, Behavioral and nutritional factors and geohelminth infection among two ethnic groups in the Terai region, Nepal. Am J Human Biol. 2009;21(1):98–104. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.20825 PubMed PMID: 906.
64. Mehraj V, Hatcher J, Akhtar S, Rafique G, Beg MA, Prevalence and Factors Associated with Intestinal Parasitic Infection among Children in an Urban Slum of Karachi. PLoS ONE. 2008;3(11): e3680. WOS:000265165500003. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003680
65. Taye B, Alemayehu B, Birhanu A, Desta K, Addisu S, Petros B, et al. Podoconiosis and Soil-Transmitted Helminths (STHs): Double Burden of Neglected Tropical Diseases in Wolaita Zone, Rural Southern Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(3): e2128. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002128 PubMed PMID: 1380.
66. Alvarado BE, Vasquez LR, Social determinants, feeding practices and nutritional consequences of intestinal parasitism in young children. Biomedica. 2006;26(1):82–94. PubMed PMID: 4048.
67. Knopp S, Mohammed KA, Stothard JR, Khamis IS, Rollinson D, Marti H, et al. Patterns and risk factors of helminthiasis and anemia in a rural and a peri-urban community in Zanzibar, in the context of helminth control programs. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(5): e681. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000681 PubMed PMID: 230.
68. Liabsuetrakul T, Chaikongkeit P, Korviwattanagarn S, Petrueng C, Chaiya S, Hanvattanakul C, et al. Epidemiology and the effect of treatment of soil-transmitted helminthiasis in pregnant women in Southern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2009;40(2):211–22. PubMed PMID: 307.
69. Gelaw A, Anagaw B, Nigussie B, Silesh B, Yirga A, Alem M, et al. Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections and risk factors among schoolchildren at the University of Gondar Community School, Northwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:304. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-304 PubMed PMID: 2080.
70. Jombo GT, Damen JG, Safiyanu H, Odey F, Mbaawuaga EM, Human intestinal parasitism, potable water availability and methods of sewage disposal among nomadic Fulanis in Kuraje rural settlement of Zamfara state. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2010;3(6):491–3. doi: 10.1016/s1995-7645(10)60118-6 PubMed PMID: 1856.
71. Ugbomoiko US, Dalumo V, Ofoezie IE, Obiezue RNN, Socio-environmental factors and ascariasis infection among school-aged children in Ilobu, Osun State, Nigeria. Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2009;103(3):223–8. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.12.01419185897
72. Ayele B, Gebre T, Moncada J, House JI, Stoller NE, Zhou Z, et al. Risk factors for ocular chlamydia after three mass azithromycin distributions. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(12):e1441. 22180804. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001441
73. Ketema K, Tiruneh M, Woldeyohannes D, Muluye D, Active trachoma and associated risk factors among children in Baso Liben District of East Gojjam, Ethiopia. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:1105. 23259854. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-1105
74. Mesfin MM, de la Camera J, Tareke IG, Amanual G, Araya T, Kedir AM, A community-based trachoma survey: prevalence and risk factors in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia. Ophthalmic Epidemiology. 2006;13(3):173–81. 16854771
75. Ngondi J, Gebre T, Shargie EB, Graves PM, Ejigsemahu Y, Teferi T, et al. Risk factors for active trachoma in children and trichiasis in adults: a household survey in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008;102(5):432–8. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.02.014 PubMed PMID: 1701.
76. Regassa K, Teshome T, Trachoma among adults in Damot Gale District, South Ethiopia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004;11(1):9–16. doi: 10.1076/opep.11.1.9.26440 PubMed PMID: 2219.
77. Vinke C, Lonergan S, Social and environmental risk factors for trachoma: a mixed methods approach in the Kembata Zone of southern Ethiopia. Canadian Journal of Development Studies-Revue Canadienne D Etudes Du Developpement. 2011;32(3):254–68. WOS:000299594500003.
78. Edwards T, Smith J, Sturrock HJW, Kur LW, Sabasio A, Finn TP, et al. Prevalence of Trachoma in Unity State, South Sudan: Results from a large-scale population-based survey and potential implications for further surveys. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(4): e1585. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001585 PubMed PMID: 734.
79. Harding-Esch EM, Edwards T, Mkocha H, Munoz B, Holland MJ, Burr SE, et al. Trachoma prevalence and associated risk factors in the Gambia and Tanzania: Baseline results of a cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(11): e861. 0.1371/journal.pntd.0000861. PubMed PMID: 858. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000861
80. Jansen E, Baltussen RMPM, Van Doorslaer E, Ngirwamungu E, Nguyen MP, Kilima PM, An eye for inequality: How trachoma relates to poverty in Tanzania and Vietnam. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2007;14(5):278–87. doi: 10.1080/09286580701299403 PubMed PMID: 164.
81. Polack S, Kuper H, Solomon AW, Massae PA, Abuelo C, Cameron E, et al. The relationship between prevalence of active trachoma, water availability and its use in a Tanzanian village. TRANS R SOC TROP MED HYG. 2006;100(11):1075–83. 16546229.
82. Borges-Pereira J, de Castro JAF, da Silva AG, Zauza PL, Bulhoes TP, Goncalves ME, et al. [Seroprevalence of Chagas disease infection in the State of Piaui, 2002] Portuguese. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2006;39(6):530–9. 17308697.
83. Pinto FS, de Andrade GMQ, Januario JN, Maia MCA, Gontijo ED, Epidemiological profile of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mothers and live birth conditions in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira De Medicina Tropical. 2013;46(2):196–9. WOS:000319625400014.
84. Llovet I, Dinardi G, de Maio FG, Mitigating social and health inequities: Community participation and Chagas disease in rural Argentina. Global Public Health. 2011;6(4):371–84. doi: 10.1080/17441692.2010.539572 PubMed PMID: 753.
85. Cucunuba ZM, Florez AC, Cardenas A, Pavia P, Montilla M, Aldana R, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for chagas disease in pregnant women in Casanare, Colombia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012;87(5):837–42. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12–0086 PubMed PMID: 841.
86. Murto C, Chammartin F, Schwarz K, da Costa LMM, Kaplan C, Heukelbach J, Patterns of Migration and Risks Associated with Leprosy among Migrants in Maranhao, Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(9): e2422. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002422 PubMed PMID: 1560.
87. Dos Santos DS, Duppre NC, Sales AM, Nery JADC, Sarno EN, Hacker MA, Kinship and leprosy in the contacts of leprosy patients: Cohort at the Souza Araujo outpatient clinic, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 1987–2010. J Trop Med. 2013. doi: 10.1155/2013/596316 PubMed PMID: 1844.
88. Hacker MdA, Duppre NC, Nery JAC, Sales AM, Sarno EN, Characteristics of leprosy diagnosed through the surveillance of contacts: a comparison with index cases in Rio de Janeiro, 1987–2010. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2012;107Suppl 1:49–54. 23283453.
89. Silva DRX, Ignotti E, Reinaldo SS, De Souza Hacon S, Hansen's disease, social conditions, and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Rev Panam Salud Publica Pan Am J Public Health. 2010;27(4):268–75. PubMed PMID: 2358.
90. Schmitt JV, Dechandt IT, Dopke G, Ribas ML, Cerci FB, Viesi JMZ, et al. Armadillo meat intake was not associated with leprosy in a case control study, Curitiba (Brazil). Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2010;105(7):857–62. PubMed PMID: 1951.
91. Kerr-Pontes LRS, Barreto ML, Evangelista CMN, Rodrigues LC, Heukelbach J, Feldmeier H, Socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioural risk factors for leprosy in North-east Brazil: Results of a case-control study. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35(4):994–1000. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl072 PubMed PMID: 968.
92. Feenstra SG, Nahar Q, Pahan D, Oskam L, Richardus JH, Recent food shortage is associated with leprosy disease in Bangladesh: A case-control study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(5): e1029. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001029 PubMed PMID: 344.
93. Bhunia GS, Chatterjee N, Kumar V, Siddiqui NA, Mandal R, Das P, et al. Delimitation of kala-azar risk areas in the district of Vaishali in Bihar (India) using a geo-environmental approach. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2012;107(5):609–20. doi: 10.1590/s0074-02762012000500007 PubMed PMID: 2183.
94. Boelaert M, Meheus F, Sanchez A, Singh SP, Vanlerberghe V, Picado A, et al. The poorest of the poor: A poverty appraisal of households affected by visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India. Trop Med Int Health. 2009;14(6):639–44. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02279.x PubMed PMID: 595.
95. Ranjan A, Sur D, Singh VP, Siddique NA, Manna B, Lal CS, et al. Risk factors for Indian kala-azar. AM J TROP MED HYG. 2005;73(1):74–8. 16014837.
96. Saha S, Ramachandran R, Hutin YJF, Gupte MD, Visceral leishmaniasis is preventable in a highly endemic village in West Bengal, India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103(7):737–42. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.10.006 PubMed PMID: 1210.
97. Singh SP, Hasker E, Picado A, Gidwani K, Malaviya P, Singh RP, et al. Risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in India: Further evidence on the role of domestic animals. Trop Med Int Health. 2010;15(SUPPL. 2):29–35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02515.x PubMed PMID: 3444.
98. Hasker E, Singh SP, Malaviya P, Picado A, Gidwani K, Singh RP, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis in rural Bihar, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(10):1662–4. doi: 10.3201/eid1810.111083 PubMed PMID: 3875.
99. Bern C, Hightower AW, Chowdhury R, Ali M, Amann J, Wagatsuma Y, et al. Risk factors for kala-azar in Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(5):655–62. PubMed PMID: 1604.
100. Ferdousi F, Alam MS, Hossain MS, Ma E, Itoh M, Mondal D, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis eradication is a reality: Data from a community-based active Surveillance in Bangladesh. Trop Med Health. 2012;40(4):133–9. doi: 10.2149/tmh.2012-25 PubMed PMID: 976.
101. Argaw D, Mulugeta A, Herrero M, Nombela N, Teklu T, Tefera T, et al. Risk Factors for Visceral Leishmaniasis among Residents and Migrants in Kafta-Humera, Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(11):e2543. 24244778. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002543
102. Kolaczinski JH, Reithinger R, Worku DT, Ocheng A, Kasimiro J, Kabatereine N, et al. Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa: A case-control study in Pokot territory of Kenya and Uganda.Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37(2):344–52. doi: 10.1093/ije/dym275 PubMed PMID: 1387.
103. Borges BKA, Da Silva JA, Haddad JPA, Moreira EC, De Magalhaes DF, Ribeiro LML, et al. Assessment of knowledge and preventive attitudes concerning visceral leishmaniasis in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2008;24(4):777–84. doi: 10.1590/s0102-311x2008000400007 PubMed PMID: 2695.
104. De Almeida AS, Medronho RDA, Werneck GL, Identification of risk areas for visceral leishmaniasis in Teresina, Piaui State, Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;84(5):681–7. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10–0325 PubMed PMID: 3441.
105. de Araujo VEM, Pinheiro LC, de Almeida MCM, de Menezes FC, Morais MHF, Reis IA, et al. Relative Risk of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Brazil: A Spatial Analysis in Urban Area. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(11): e2540. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002540 PubMed PMID: 2360.
106. De Oliveira ALL, Paniago AMM, Sanches MA, Dorval MEC, Oshiro ET, Leal CRB, et al. Asymptomatic infection in family contacts of patients with human visceral leishmaniasis in Tres Lagoas, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2008;24(12):2827–33. doi: 10.1590/s0102-311x2008001200011 PubMed PMID: 3500.
107. Gouvea MV, Werneck GL, Costa CHN, de Amorim Carvalho FA, Factors associated to Montenegro skin test positivity in Teresina, Brazil. Acta Trop. 2007;104(2–3):99–107. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.07.010 PubMed PMID: 3532.
108. Lima ID, Queiroz JW, Lacerda HG, Queiroz PVS, Pontes NN, Barbosa JDA, et al. Leishmania infantum chagasi in Northeastern Brazil: Asymptomatic infection at the urban perimeter. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012;86(1):99–107. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.10–0492 PubMed PMID: 260.
109. de Vlas SJ, Stolk WA, le Rutte EA, Hontelez JA, Bakker R, Blok DJ, et al. Concerted Efforts to Control or Eliminate Neglected Tropical Diseases: How Much Health Will Be Gained?PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(2):e0004386. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.000438626890362; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4758649.
110. Anderson RM, May RM, Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control. New York: Oxford University Press; 1992.
111. Alvar J, Yactayo S, Bern C, Leishmaniasis and poverty. Trends Parasitol. 2006;22(12):552–7. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2006.09.004 PubMed PMID: 228.
112. Gwatkin DR, Wagstaff A, Yazbeck AS, Gwatkin D, Wagstaff A, Yazbeck A, Reaching the poor with Health, Nutrition, and Population Services: What Works, What Doesn’t, and Why. Washington: World Bank; 2005.
113. World Health OrganisationInvesting to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases: Third WHO report on neglected tropical diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.
114. Bethony J, Brooker S, Albonico M, Geiger SM, Loukas A, Diemert D, et al. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm. Lancet. 2006;367(9521):1521–32. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68653-416679166.