Household determinants of bushmeat and eru (Gnetum africanum) harvesting for cash in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Environment, Development and Sustainability

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 1425-1443

  Bakkegaard, Riyong Kim ^a   Nielsen, Martin Reinhardt ^a   Thorsen, Bo Jellesmark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Cash income; Conservation; DRC; Forest products; Heckman model

Indexed keywords

BUSHMEAT; CONSERVATION PLANNING; EDUCATION; FOREST PRODUCT; HARVESTING; HOUSEHOLD INCOME; NUMERICAL MODEL; POVERTY; SUSTAINABILITY; TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE; VINE;

BAS CONGO; DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC CONGO;

GNETUM AFRICANUM;

EID: 84969951782     PISSN: 1387585X     EISSN: 15732975     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10668-016-9812-9     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Abia, W. A., Numfor, F. A., Wanji, S. (2007). Energy and nutrient contents of “waterfufu and eru”. Online at http://akobatglobalmedia.typepad.com/files/energy-and-nutrientcontents-of-waterfufu-and-eru.pdf. Accessed 02 Feb 2016.
2. Acock, A. C. (2005). Working with missing values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(4), 1012–1028.
3. Angelsen, A., Jagger, P., Babigumira, R., Belcher, B., Hogarth, N. J., Bauch, S., et al. (2014). Environmental income and rural livelihoods: A global-comparative analysis. World Development, 64, S12–S28.
4. Angelsen, A., Larsen, H.O., Lund, J. F., Smith-Hall, C., Wunder, S. (Eds.) (2011). Measuring livelihoods and environmental dependence: Methods for research and fieldwork. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.
5. Angelsen, A., & Wunder, S. (2003). Exploring the forest-poverty link: Key concepts, issues and research implications. Occasional paper no. 40. Centre for International Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia.
6. Appiah, M., Blay, D., Damnyag, L., Dwomoh, F. K., Pappinene, A., & Luukkanene, O. (2009). Dependence on forest resources and tropical deforestation in Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 11, 471–487.
7. Arnold, J. E., & Ruiz-Perez, M. (2001). Can non-timber forest products match tropical forest conservation and development objectives? Ecological Economics, 39, 437–447.
8. Bakkegaard, R. K. (2008). Forests and poverty: Forest contributions to household economies in western Democratic Republic of Congo. Masters Thesis, University of Copenhagen
9. Batisse, M. (1997). Biosphere reserves: A challenge for biodiversity conservation and regional development. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 39(5), 6–33.
10. Belcher, B. M. (2003). What isn’t an NTFP? International Forestry Review, 5(2), 161–168.
11. Bennett, E. L., Blencowe, E., Brandon, K., Brown, D., Burn, R. W., Cowlishaw, G., et al. (2007). Hunting for consensus: Reconciling bushmeat harvest, conservation and development policy in West and Central Africa. Conservation Biology, 21(3), 884–887.
12. Blake, S., Strindberg, S., Boudjan, P., Makombo, C., Bila-Isia, I., Ilambu, O., et al. (2007). Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin. PLoS Biology, 5, 945–953.
13. Bouché, P., Renaud, P. C., Lejeune, P., Vermeulen, C., Froment, J. M., Bangara, A., et al. (2009). Has the final countdown to wildlife extinction in Northern Central African Republic begun? African Journal of Ecology, 48, 994–1003.
14. Brashares, J. S., Golden, C. D., Weinbaum, K. Z., Barrett, C. B., & Okello, G. V. (2011). Economic and geographic drivers of wildlife consumption in rural Africa. PNAS, 108(34), 13931–13936.
15. Cavendish, W. (2000). Empirical Regularities in the poverty-environment relationship of rural households: Evidence from Zimbabwe. World Development, 28(11), 1979–2003.
16. Cavendish, W. (2002). Quantitative methods for estimating the value of resource use to household income. In B. Campbell & M. K. Luckert (Eds.), Uncovering the hidden harvest (pp. 17–65). London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
17. CEDLAS and World Bank. (2012). Socio-economic database for Latin America and the Caribbean. Online at http://sedlac.econo.unlp.edu.ar. Accessed 4 Nov 2012.
18. Chaber, A., Allebone-Webb, S., Lignereux, Y., Cunningham, A. A., & Rowcliffe, J. M. (2010). The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris. Conservation Letters, 3(5), 317–321.
19. Chambers, R., & Leach, M. (1989). Trees as savings and security for the rural poor. World Development, 17(3), 329–342.
20. CIFOR (2008). PEN prototype questionnaires. Version 4.0, May 2007. Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia. Available at: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/pen/_ref/tools/index.htm. Accessed 6 June 2008.
21. Clark, L. (2001). Non-timber forest products: Economics and conservation potential. Congo Basin information series, ssue Brief #10. USAID/CARPE. Online at http://carpe.umd.edu/Documents/2001/Ch10_nontimber_forest_products.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2012.
22. Clark, L., Asaha, S., Ndam, N., & Blackmore, P. (2004). Eru (Gnetum Africanum and G. Buchholzianum). In: Clark L., Sunderland, T. C. H. (Eds), The key non-timber forest products of Central Africa: State of the knowledge. Technical paper no. 122, SD publication series, office of sustainable development, bureau for Africa, U.S. Agency for International Development, pp 199. Online at http://terrysunderland.com/_asset/berkas/The_Key_Non-Timber_Forest_Products_of_Central_Africa%3A_State_of_the_Knowledge-190611.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2012.
23. Coad, L. (2007). Bushmeat hunting in Gabon: Socio-economics and hunter behaviour. PhD thesis from University of Cambridge and Imperial College, London, UK, pp. 347.
24. Coad, L., Abernethy, K., Balmford, A., Manica, A., Airey, L., & Milner-Gulland, E. J. (2010). Distribution and use of income from bushmeat in a rural village, Central Gabon. Conservation Biology, 24(6), 1510–1518.
25. Coomes, O. T., Barham, B. L., & Takasaki, Y. (2004). Targeting conservation-development initiatives in tropical forests: Insights from analyses of rain forest use and economic reliance among Amazonian peasants. Ecological Economics, 51, 47–64.
26. de Merode, E., Homewood, K., & Cowlishaw, G. (2004). The value of bushmeat and other wild foods to rural households living in extreme poverty in Democratic Republic of Congo. Biological Conservation, 118(5), 573–581.
27. de Wasseige, C., de Marcken, P., Bayol, N., Hiol-Hiol, F., Mayaux, P.H., Desclée, B., Nasi, R., Billand, A., Defourny, P., & Atyi, E. A. (2012). The forests of the Congo basin: State of the forest 2010. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
28. Deaton, A. (1999). Saving and growth. In K. Schmidt-Hebbel & L. Serven (Eds.), The Economics of saving and growth: Theory, evidence, and implications for policy (p. 199). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29. Debroux, L., Hart, T., Kaimowitz, D., Karsenty, A., & Topa, G. (Eds.) (2007). Forests in post-conflict Democratic Republic of Congo: Analysis of a priority agenda. A joint report by teams of the World Bank, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Centre International de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Conseil National des ONG de Développement du Congo (CNONGD), Conservation International (CI), Groupe de Travail Forêts (GTF), Ligue Nationale des Pygmées du Congo (LINAPYCO), Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), Réseau des Partenaires pour l’Environnement au Congo (REPEC), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Woods Hole Research Center (WHRC), World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Online at http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BCIFOR0701.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2012
30. Dercon, S. (2002). Income risk, coping strategies and safety nets. World Bank Research Observer, 17(2), 141–166.
31. Devereux, S. (2001). Livelihood insecurity and social protection: A re-emerging issue in rural development. Development Policy Review, 19(4), 507–519.
32. Fa, J. E., Albrechtsen, L., Johnson, P. J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2009). Linkages between household wealth, bushmeat and other animal protein consumption are not invariant: Evidence from Rio Muni, Equatorial Guinea. Animal Conservation, 12, 599–610.
33. Fa, J. E., Currie, D., & Meeuwig, J. (2003). Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin: Linkages between wildlife and people’s future. Environmental Conservation, 30(1), 71–78.
34. Fa, J. F., Olivero, J., Farfán, M. A., Márquez, A. L., Duarte, J., Nackoney, J., et al. (2015a). Correlates of bushmeat in markets and depletion of wildlife. Conservation Biology, 29, 805–815.
35. Fa, J. E., Olivero, J., Real, R., Farfán, M. A., Márquez, A. L., Vargas, J. M., et al. (2015b). Disentangling the relative effects of bushmeat availability on human nutrition in central Africa. Scientific Reports, 5, 8168. doi:10.1038/srep08168.
36. Fa, J. E., Ryan, S. F., & Bell, D. J. (2005). Hunting vulnerability, ecological characteristics and harvest rates of bushmeat species in afrotropical forests. Biological Conservation, 121, 167–176.
37. Fisher, M. (2004). Household welfare and forest dependence in Southern Malawi. Environment and Development Economics, 9, 135–154.
38. Godoy, R., Undurraga, E. A., Wilkie, D., Reyes-García, V., Huanca, T., Leonard, W. R., et al. (2010). The effect of wealth and real income on wildlife consumption among native Amazonians in Bolivia: Estimates of annual trends with longitudinal household data (2002–2006). Animal Conservation, 13, 265–274.
39. Heckman, J. J. (1979). Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica, 47(1), 153–161.
40. Henkemans, A. B. (1995). Forest products are a free gift of nature: Gender issues in the exploitation and trade of non-timber forest products in the Korup Project Area (p. 123). Cameroon: Wageningen agricultural university.
41. Ingram, V., Ndumbe, L. N., & Ewane, M. E. (2012). Small scale, high value: Gnetum africanum and buchholzianum value chains in Cameroon. Small-scale forestry. doi:10.1007/s11842-012-9200-8.
42. Kümpel, N. F., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Cowlishaw, G., & Rowcliffe, J. M. (2010). Incentives for hunting: the role of bushmeat in the household economy in rural Equatorial Guinea. Human Ecology, 38, 252–264.
43. Lacuna-Richman, C. (2006). The use of non-wood forest products by migrants in a new settlement: Experiences of a Visayan community in Palawan. Philippines. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2, 1.
44. Lakeman, F. P., & Bachman, S. (2008). Gnetum africanum. In: IUCN red list of threatened species. Version 2011.1. Online at http://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed 22 Dec 2012.
45. Lampietti, N., & Dixon, J. (1995). To see the forest for the trees: A guide to non-timber forest benefits. Environmental Economics Paper No 013, Environment department, World Bank, Washington, DC., USA.
46. Malchow-Møller, N., & Thorsen, B. J. (2005). The buffer stock consumption model with endogenous income shifts. The BE Journal of Macro Economics, 5, 1–27.
47. Mamo, G., Sjaastad, E., & Vedeld, P. (2007). Economic dependence on forest resources: A case from Dendi District, Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 9, 916–927.
48. Mbete, R. A., Banga-Mboko, H., Racey, P., Mfoukou-Ntsakala, A., Nganga, I., Vermeulen, C., et al. (2011). Household bushmeat consumption in Brazzaville, the Republic of the Congo. Tropical Conservation Science, 4(2), 187–202.
49. McElwee, P. D. (2008). Forest environmental income in Vietnam: Household socioeconomic factors influencing forest use. Environmental Conservation, 35(2), 147–159.
50. McSweeney, K. (2004). Forest product sale as natural insurance: The effects of household characteristics and the nature of shock in eastern Honduras. Society and Natural Resources, 17(1), 39–56.
51. Milner-Gulland, E. J., Bennett, E. L. (2002). annual meeting wild meat group, 2003. Wild meat: The big picture. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18, 351–357.
52. Mockrin, M. H., Bennett, E. L., & LaBruna, D. T. (2005). Wildlife farming: a viable alternative to hunting in Tropical forests? WCS Working Paper No. 23. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York
53. Nasi, R., Taber, A., & Vliet, N. V. (2011). Empty forests, empty stomachs? Bushmeat and livelihoods in the Congo and Amazon Basins. International Forestry Review, 13(3), 355–368.
54. Ndoye, O., & Awono, A. (2007). Regulatory policies and Gnetum spp. trade in Cameroon. Forest livelihoods briefs no. 6. Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia.
55. Ndumbe L., Ingram V., & Awono A. (2009). Baseline study on Gnetum spp. in the South West and Littoral Regions of Cameroon, edited by CIFOR. Yaounde, Cameroon: FAOCIFOR-SNV-World Agro-forestry Center- COMIFAC.
56. Nielsen, M. R., Jacobsen, J. B., & Thorsen, B. J. (2014). Factors determining the choice of hunting and trading bushmeat in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Conservation Biology, 28, 382–391.
57. Nogueira, S. S., & Nogueira-Filho, S. L. (2011). Wildlife farming: An alternative to unsustainable hunting and deforestation in Neotropical forest. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 1385–1397.
58. Palmer, C., & MacGregor, J. (2009). Fuelwood scarcity, energy substitution, and rural livelihoods in Namibia. Environment and Development Economics, 14(06), 693–715.
59. Pattanayak, S. K., & Sills, E. (2001). Do tropical forests provide natural insurance? The microeconomics of non-timber forest product collection in the Brazilian Amazon. Land Economics, 77(4), 595–612.
60. Paumgarten, F. (2005). The role of non-timber forest products as safety-nets: A review of the evidence with focus on South Africa. GeoJournal, 64, 189–197.
61. Robinson, J. G., & Redford, K. H. (2004). Jack of all trades, master of none: Inherent contradictions among ICD approaches. In T. O. McShane & M. Wells (Eds.), Getting biodiversity projects to work: Towards more effective conservation and development (pp. 10–34). New York: Columbia University Press.
62. Scherr, S. J., White, A., & Kaimowitz, D. (2004). A new agenda for forest conservation and poverty reduction: Making markets work for low-income producers (p. 160). USA: Forest Trends, Washington DC.
63. Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, Brighton: IDS
64. Singh, I., Squire, L., & Strauss, J. (Eds.). (1986). Agricultural household models—Extensions, applications and policy (p. 343). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
65. Sneyd, L. Q. (2013). Wild food, prices, diets and development: Sustainability and food security in urban Cameroon. Sustainability, 5(11), 4728–4759.
66. Sneyd, L. Q. (2015). Zoning in: The contributions of buyam–sellams to constructing Cameroons wild food zone. Geoforum 59:73-86.
67. Solly, H. (2004). Bushmeat hunters and secondary traders: Making the distinction for livelihood improvements. ODI wildlife policy briefings (p. 4). London: Overseas Development Institute.
68. Starkey, M. (2004). Commerce and subsistence: The hunting, sale and consumption of bushmeat in Gabon. PhD thesis from university of Cambridge, Cambridge.
69. Stoner, K. E., Vulinec, K., Wright, S. J., & Peres, C. A. (2007). Hunting and plant community dynamics in tropical forests: A synthesis and future directions. Biotropica, 39(3), 385–392.
70. Takasaki, Y., Barham, B. L., & Coomes, O. T. (2000). Rapid rural appraisal in humid tropical forests: An asset possession-based approach and valuation methods for wealth assessment among forest peasant households. World Development, 28(11), 1961–1977.
71. Tchoundjeu, Z., Asaah, E. K., Anegbeh, P., Degrande, A., Mbile, P., Facheux, C., et al. (2006). Putting participatory domestication into practice in west and Central Africa. Forest Trees Livelihoods, 16, 53–69.
72. Tieguhong, J. C., Ingram, V., Mala, W. A., Ndoye, O., & Grouwels, S. (2015). How governance impacts non-timber forest product value chains in Cameroon. Forest Policy and Economics, 61, 1–10.
73. Tieguhong, J. C., & Zwolinski, J. (2009). Supplies of bushmeat for livelihoods in logging towns in the Congo Basin. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry, 1(5), 065–080.
74. UNESCO (2012) What is a biosphere reserve? Online at http://www.unesco.org/mab/doc/faq/brs.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov 2012.
75. van Vliet, N., Nasi, R., & Taber, R. (2011). From the forest to the stomach: Bushmeat consumption from rural to urban settings in Central Africa. In: Shackleton, S., Shackleton, C., Shanley, P. (Eds), Non-timber forest products in the global context. Tropical Forestry 7. Springer, Heidelberg.
76. van Vliet, N., Nebesse, C., Gambalemoke, S., Akaibe, D., & Nasi, R. (2012). The bushmeat market in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo: Implications for conservation and food security. Oryx, 46(2), 196–203.
77. Vanthomme, H., Belle, B., & Forget, P. (2010). Bushmeat hunting alters recruitment of large-seeded plant species in Central Africa. Biotropica, 42(6), 672–679.
78. Vedeld, P., Angelsen, A., Sjaastad, E., & Berg, G. K. (2004). Counting on the environment: Forest incomes and the rural poor. World Bank, Washington (No. 98). DC Environment Department Working Paper.
79. Vedeld, P., Angelsen, A., Sjaastad, E., Bojö, J., & Berg, G. K. (2007). Forest environmental incomes and the rural poor. Forest Policy and Economics, 9(7), 869–879.
80. Wang, B. C., Stork, V. L., Leong, M. T., & Smith, T. B. (2007). Hunting of mammals reduces seed removal and dispersal of the Afrotropical tree Antrocaryon klaineanum (Anacardiaceae). Biotropica, 39(3), 340–347.
81. Wilkie, D. S., & Carpenter, J. F. (1999). Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: An assessment of impacts and options for mitigating. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8, 927–955.
82. World Bank (2015). Democratic Republic of Congo. Online at: http://data.worldbank.org/country/congo-dem-rep. Accessed 08 Oct 2015.