Elevated Concentrations of Lead in Particulate Matter on the Neighborhood-Scale in Delhi, India As Determined by Single Particle Analysis

Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 50, Issue 10, 2016, Pages 4961-4970

  Shen, Hongru ^a   Peters, Thomas M ^b   Casuccio, Gary S ^c   Lersch, Traci L ^c   West, Roger R ^c   Kumar, Amit ^d   Kumar, Naresh ^e   Ault, Andrew P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

^c RJ LEE GROUP   (United States)

^d WHO Regional Office for South East Asia   (India)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENERGY DISPERSIVE SPECTROSCOPY; LEAD; LEAD ACID BATTERIES; PARTICLES (PARTICULATE MATTER); SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; X RAY SPECTROSCOPY;

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES; COMPUTER CONTROLLED SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; ELEVATED CONCENTRATIONS; ENERGY DISPERSIVE X RAY SPECTROSCOPY; PARTICLE CONCENTRATIONS; RECYCLING OPERATIONS; SINGLE-PARTICLE ANALYSIS; TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS;

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS;

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); EMISSION INVENTORY; LEAD; MONSOON; NEIGHBORHOOD; PARTICLE SIZE; PARTICULATE MATTER; PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTY; RECYCLING;

CLINICAL ARTICLE; EXPOSURE; HUMAN; HUMAN TISSUE; INDIA; MORPHOLOGY; NEIGHBORHOOD; PARTICULATE MATTER; RECYCLING; ROENTGEN SPECTROSCOPY; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; AIR POLLUTANT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; PARTICLE SIZE;

DELHI; INDIA;

AIR POLLUTANT; LEAD; PARTICULATE MATTER;

AIR POLLUTANTS; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; INDIA; LEAD; PARTICLE SIZE; PARTICULATE MATTER;

EID: 84969855974     PISSN: 0013936X     EISSN: 15205851     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06202     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Abadin, H.; Ashizawa, A.; Stevens, Y.-W.; Llados, F.; Diamond, G.; Sage, G.; Citra, M.; Quinones, A.; Bosch, S. J.; Swarts, S. G. Toxicological Profile for Lead; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Atlanta, GA, 2007.
2. Shotyk, W.; Le Roux, G. Biogeochemistry and cycling of lead Met Ions Biol. Syst 2005, 43, 239-75 10.1201/9780824751999.ch10
3. Hu, H.; Aro, A.; Payton, M.; Korrick, S.; Sparrow, D.; Weiss, S. T.; Rotnitzky, A. The relationship of bone and blood lead to hypertension-The normative aging study J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1996, 275 (15) 1171-1176 10.1001/jama.275.15.1171
4. Baker, E. L.; Landrigan, P. J.; Barbour, A. G.; Cox, D. H.; Folland, D. S.; Ligo, R. N.; Throckmorton, J. Occupational Lead-Poisoning in the United-States-Clinical and Biochemical Findings Related to Blood Lead Levels Occup. Environ. Med. 1979, 36 (4) 314-322 10.1136/oem.36.4.314
5. Koller, K.; Brown, T.; Spurgeon, A.; Levy, L. Recent developments in low-level lead exposure and intellectual impairment in children Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112 (9) 987-994 10.1289/ehp.6941
6. Flora, G.; Gupta, D.; Tiwari, A. Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2012, 5 (2) 47-58 10.2478/v10102-012-0009-2
7. Tong, S.; von Schirnding, Y. E.; Prapamontol, T. Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2000, 78 (9) 1068-1077
8. Tan, M. G.; Zhang, G. L.; Li, X. L.; Zhang, Y. X.; Yue, W. S.; Chen, J. M.; Wang, Y. S.; Li, A. G.; Li, Y.; Zhang, Y. M.; Shan, Z. C. Comprehensive study of lead pollution in Shanghai by multiple techniques Anal. Chem. 2006, 78 (23) 8044-8050 10.1021/ac061365q
9. Murphy, D. M.; Hudson, P. K.; Cziczo, D. J.; Gallavardin, S.; Froyd, K. D.; Johnston, M. V.; Middlebrook, A. M.; Reinard, M. S.; Thomson, D. S.; Thornberry, T.; Wexler, A. S. Distribution of lead in single atmospheric particles Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2007, 7 (12) 3195-3210 10.5194/acp-7-3195-2007
10. Thomas, V. M.; Socolow, R. H.; Fanelli, J. J.; Spiro, T. G. Effects of reducing lead in gasoline: An analysis of the international experience Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33 (22) 3942-3948 10.1021/es990231+
11. U. S. EPA, National Trends in Lead Levels. http://www3.epa.gov/airtrends/lead.html.
12. Pirkle, J. L.; Brody, D. J.; Gunter, E. W.; Kramer, R. A.; Paschal, D. C.; Flegal, K. M.; Matte, T. D. The decline in blood lead levels in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1994, 272 (4) 284-291 10.1001/jama.1994.03520040046039
13. Jones, R. L.; Homa, D. M.; Meyer, P. A.; Brody, D. J.; Caldwell, K. L.; Pirkle, J. L.; Brown, M. J. Trends in Blood Lead Levels and Blood Lead Testing Among US Children Aged 1 to 5 Years, 1988-2004 Pediatrics 2009, 123 (3) e376-e385 10.1542/peds.2007-3608
14. Kessler, R. Sunset for leaded aviation gasoline? Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121 (2) a54 10.1289/ehp.121-a54
15. National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead; Final Rule; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washinton, DC, 2008; Vol. 73, pp 66964-67062.
16. Kalra, V.; Sahu, J. K.; Bedi, P.; Pandey, R. M. Blood Lead Levels among School Children after Phasing-Out of Leaded Petrol in Delhi, India Indian J. Pediatr. 2013, 80 (8) 636-640 10.1007/s12098-013-0999-6
17. Sun, Y.; Zhuang, G. S.; Zhang, W. J.; Wang, Y.; Zhuang, Y. H. Characteristics and sources of lead pollution after phasing out leaded gasoline in Beijing Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (16) 2973-2985 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.12.032
18. Pant, P.; Shukla, A.; Kohl, S. D.; Chow, J. C.; Watson, J. G.; Harrison, R. M. Characterization of ambient PM2.5 at a pollution hotspot in New Delhi, India and inference of sources Atmos. Environ. 2015, 109, 178-189 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.02.074
19. Haefliger, P.; Mathieu-Nolf, M.; Lociciro, S.; Ndiaye, C.; Coly, M.; Diouf, A.; Faye, A. L.; Sow, A.; Tempowski, J.; Pronczuk, J.; Filipe, A. P.; Bertollini, R.; Neira, M. Mass Lead Intoxication from Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling in Dakar, Senegal Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117 (10) 1535-1540 10.1289/ehp.0900696
20. Sharma, S. K.; Mandal, T. K.; Sharma, C.; Kuniyal, J. C.; Joshi, R.; Dhyani, P. P.; Rohtash; Sen, A.; Ghayas, H.; Gupta, N. C.; Sharma, P.; Saxena, M.; Sharma, A.; Arya, B. C.; Kumar, A. Measurements of Particulate (PM2.5), BC and Trace Gases Over the Northwestern Himalayan Region of India Mapan-J. Metrol. Soc. I. 2014, 29 (4) 243-253 10.1007/s12647-014-0104-2
21. Tiwari, S.; Chate, D. M.; Pragya, P.; Ali, K.; Bisht, D. S. Variations in Mass of the PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 during the Monsoon and the Winter at New Delhi Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2012, 12 (1) 20-29 10.4209/aaqr.2011.06.0075
22. Sharma, S. K.; Sharma, A.; Saxena, M.; Choudhary, N.; Masiwal, R.; Mandal, T. K.; Sharma, C. Chemical characterization and source apportionment of aerosol at an urban area of Central Delhi, India Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2016, 7 (1) 110-121 10.1016/j.apr.2015.08.002
23. Guttikunda, S. K.; Goel, R.; Pant, P. Nature of air pollution, emission sources, and management in the Indian cities Atmos. Environ. 2014, 95, 501-510 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.07.006
24. Khillare, P. S.; Sarkar, S. Airborne inhalable metals in residential areas of Delhi, India: distribution, source apportionment and health risks Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2012, 3 (1) 46-54 10.5094/APR.2012.004
25. Gupta, I.; Salunkhe, A.; Kumar, R. Modelling 10-year trends of PM10 and related toxic heavy metal concentrations in four cities in India J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 179 (1-3) 1084-1095 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.03.117
26. Chandra, S.; Kulshrestha, M. J.; Singh, R. Temporal Variation and Concentration Weighted Trajectory Analysis of Lead in PM10 Aerosols at a Site in Central Delhi, India Int. J. Atmos. Sci. 2014, 2014, 1-8 10.1155/2014/323040
27. Singh, D. P.; Gadi, R.; Mandal, T. K. Characterization of particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and trace metals composition of urban air in Delhi, India Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45 (40) 7653-7663 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.058
28. Gargava, P.; Chow, J. C.; Watson, J. G.; Lowenthal, D. H. Speciated PM10 Emission Inventory for Delhi, India Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2014, 14 (5) 1515-1526 10.4209/aaqr.2013.02.0047
29. Gupt, Y. Economic instruments and the efficient recycling of batteries in Delhi and the National Capital Region of India Environ. Dev. Econ. 2015, 20 (2) 236-258 10.1017/S1355770X14000382
30. Gupt, Y.; Sahay, S. Review of extended producer responsibility: A case study approach Waste Manage. Res. 2015, 33 (7) 595-611 10.1177/0734242X15592275
31. Kumar, P.; Khare, M.; Harrison, R. M.; Bloss, W. J.; Lewis, A.; Coe, H.; Morawska, L. New Directions: Air pollution challenges for developing megacities like Delhi Atmos. Environ. 2015, 122, 657-661 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.10.032
32. Gupt, Y.; Sahay, S. Managing Used Lead Acid Batteries in India: Evaluation of EPR-DRS Approaches Journal of Health Pollution 2015, 5 (8) 52-63 10.5696/i2156-9614-5-8.52
33. Rajagopalan, V. Recent Indian Policy Initiatives in Lead Battery Scrap Management and Their Impact on the Domestic Demand-Supply Gap of Lead; Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 2006.
34. Rao, G. M.; Shetty, B. V.; Sudha, K. Evaluation of lead toxicity and antioxidants in battery workers Biomedical Research-India 2008, 19 (1) 1-4
35. Kumar, N.; Chu, A.; Foster, A. Remote sensing of ambient particles in Delhi and its environs: estimation and validation Int. J. Remote Sens. 2008, 29 (12) 3383-3405 10.1080/01431160701474545
36. Kumar, N. Spatial sampling design for a demographic and health survey Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 2007, 26 (5-6) 581-599 10.1007/s11113-007-9044-7
37. Kumar, N.; Nixon, V.; Sinha, K.; Jiang, X. S.; Ziegenhorn, S.; Peters, T. An Optimal Spatial Configuration of Sample Sites for Air Pollution Monitoring J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2009, 59 (11) 1308-1316 10.3155/1047-3289.59.11.1308
38. Ott, D. K.; Kumar, N.; Peters, T. M. Passive sampling to capture spatial variability in PM10-2.5 Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (4) 746-756 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.058
39. Wagner, J.; Leith, D. Passive aerosol sampler. Part I: Principle of operation Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2001, 34 (2) 186-192 10.1080/027868201300034808
40. Wagner, J.; Leith, D. Passive aerosol sampler. Part II: Wind tunnel experiments Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2001, 34 (2) 193-201 10.1080/027868201300034826
41. Hopke, P. K.; Casuccio, G., Scanning Electron Microscopy. In Receptor Modeling for Air Quality Management; Elsevier: 1991; p 7.
42. Ault, A. P.; Peters, T. M.; Sawvel, E. J.; Casuccio, G. S.; Willis, R. D.; Norris, G. A.; Grassian, V. H. Single-Particle SEM-EDX Analysis of Iron-Containing Coarse Particulate Matter in an Urban Environment: Sources and Distribution of Iron within Cleveland, Ohio Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (8) 4331-4339 10.1021/es204006k
43. Kumar, P.; Hopke, P. K.; Raja, S.; Casuccio, G.; Lersch, T. L.; West, R. R. Characterization and heterogeneity of coarse particles across an urban area Atmos. Environ. 2012, 46, 449-459 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.09.018
44. Lagudu, U. R. K.; Raja, S.; Hopke, P. K.; Chalupa, D. C.; Utell, M. J.; Casuccio, G.; Lersch, T. L.; West, R. R. Heterogeneity of Coarse Particles in an Urban Area Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (8) 3288-3296 10.1021/es103831w
45. Krueger, B. J.; Grassian, V. H.; Cowin, J. P.; Laskin, A. Heterogeneous chemistry of individual mineral dust particles from different dust source regions: the importance of particle mineralogy Atmos. Environ. 2004, 38 (36) 6253-6261 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.07.010
46. Chen, H.; Laskin, A.; Baltrusaitis, J.; Gorski, C. A.; Scherer, M. M.; Grassian, V. H. Coal Fly Ash as a Source of Iron in Atmospheric Dust Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (4) 2112-2120 10.1021/es204102f
47. Laskin, A.; Wietsma, T. W.; Krueger, B. J.; Grassian, V. H. Heterogeneous chemistry of individual mineral dust particles with nitric acid: A combined CCSEM/EDX, ESEM, and ICP-MS study J. Geophys. Res. 2005, 110, D10 10.1029/2004JD005206
48. Moffet, R. C.; Desyaterik, Y.; Hopkins, R. J.; Tivanski, A. V.; Gilles, M. K.; Wang, Y.; Shutthanandan, V.; Molina, L. T.; Abraham, R. G.; Johnson, K. S.; Mugica, V.; Molina, M. J.; Laskin, A.; Prather, K. A. Characterization of aerosols containing Zn, Pb, and Cl from an industrial region of Mexico City Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (19) 7091-7097 10.1021/es7030483
49. Pina, A. A.; Villasenor, G. T.; Jacinto, P. S.; Fernandez, M. M. Scanning and transmission electron microscope of suspended lead-rich particles in the air of San Luis Potosi, Mexico Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36 (33) 5235-5243 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00588-5
50. Choel, M.; Deboudt, K.; Flament, P.; Lecornet, G.; Perdrix, E.; Sobanska, S. Fast evolution of tropospheric Pb- and Zn-rich particles in the vicinity of a lead smelter Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (24) 4439-4449 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.04.027
51. Laskin, A.; Iedema, M. J.; Cowin, J. P. Quantitative time-resolved monitoring of nitrate formation in sea salt particles using a CCSEM/EDX single particle analysis Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36 (23) 4948-4955 10.1021/es020551k
52. Ault, A. P.; Guasco, T. L.; Ryder, O. S.; Baltrusaitis, J.; Cuadra-Rodriguez, L. A.; Collins, D. B.; Ruppel, M. J.; Bertram, T. H.; Prather, K. A.; Grassian, V. H. Inside versus Outside: Ion Redistribution in Nitric Acid Reacted Sea Spray Aerosol Particles as Determined by Single Particle Analysis J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (39) 14528-14531 10.1021/ja407117x
53. Hoffman, R. C.; Laskin, A.; Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. Sodium nitrate particles: physical and chemical properties during hydration and dehydration, and implications for aged sea salt aerosols J. Aerosol Sci. 2004, 35 (7) 869-887 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.02.003
54. Laskin, A.; Gaspar, D. J.; Wang, W.; Hunt, S. W.; Cowin, J. P.; Colson, S. D.; Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. Reactions at interfaces as a source of sulfate formation in sea-salt particles Science 2003, 301 (5631) 340-344 10.1126/science.1085374
55. Ault, A. P.; Moffet, R. C.; Baltrusaitis, J.; Collins, D. B.; Ruppel, M. J.; Cuadra-Rodriguez, L. A.; Zhao, D.; Guasco, T. L.; Ebben, C. J.; Geiger, F. M.; Bertram, T. H.; Prather, K. A.; Grassian, V. H. Size-dependent changes in sea spray serosol composition and properties with different seawater conditions Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (11) 5603-5612 10.1021/es400416g
56. Prather, K. A.; Bertram, T. H.; Grassian, V. H.; Deane, G. B.; Stokes, M. D.; DeMott, P. J.; Aluwihare, L. I.; Palenik, B. P.; Azam, F.; Seinfeld, J. H.; Moffet, R. C.; Molina, M. J.; Cappa, C. D.; Geiger, F. M.; Roberts, G. C.; Russell, L. M.; Ault, A. P.; Baltrusaitis, J.; Collins, D. B.; Corrigan, C. E.; Cuadra-Rodriguez, L. A.; Ebben, C. J.; Forestieri, S. D.; Guasco, T. L.; Hersey, S. P.; Kim, M. J.; Lambert, W. F.; Modini, R. L.; Mui, W.; Pedler, B. E.; Ruppel, M. J.; Ryder, O. S.; Schoepp, N. G.; Sullivan, R. C.; Zhao, D. Bringing the ocean into the laboratory to probe the chemical complexity of sea spray aerosol Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013, 110 (19) 7550-7555 10.1073/pnas.1300262110
57. Ault, A. P.; Zhao, D.; Ebben, C. J.; Tauber, M. J.; Geiger, F. M.; Prather, K. A.; Grassian, V. H. Raman microspectroscopy and vibrational sum frequency generation spectroscopy as probes of the bulk and surface compositions of size-resolved sea spray aerosol particles Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013, 15 (17) 6206-6214 10.1039/c3cp43899f
58. Fruhstorfer, P.; Niessner, R. Identification and Classification of Airborne Soot Particles Using an Automated Sem Edx Microchim. Acta 1994, 113 (3-6) 239-250 10.1007/BF01243614
59. Moffet, R. C.; Rödel, T.; Kelly, S. T.; Yu, X.-Y.; Carroll, G.; Fast, J.; Zaveri, R. A.; Laskin, A.; Gilles, M. K. Spectro-microscopic measurements of carbonaceous aerosol aging in Central California Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2013, 13 (20) 10445-10459 10.5194/acp-13-10445-2013
60. Moffet, R. C.; Henn, T. R.; Tivanski, A. V.; Hopkins, R. J.; Desyaterik, Y.; Kilcoyne, A. L. D.; Tyliszczak, T.; Fast, J.; Barnard, J.; Shutthanandan, V.; Cliff, S. S.; Perry, K. D.; Laskin, A.; Gilles, M. K. Microscopic characterization of carbonaceous aerosol particle aging in the outflow from Mexico City Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10 (3) 961-976 10.5194/acp-10-961-2010
61. Sachdeva, K.; Attri, A. K. Morphological characterization of carbonaceous aggregates in soot and free fall aerosol samples Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (5) 1025-1034 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.10.002
62. Pachauri, T.; Satsangi, A.; Singla, V.; Lakhani, A.; Kumari, K. M. Characteristics and Sources of Carbonaceous Aerosols in PM2.5 during Wintertime in Agra, India Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2013, 13 (3) 977-991 10.4209/aaqr.2012.10.0263
63. Davidsson, K. O.; Amand, L. E.; Leckner, B.; Kovacevik, B.; Svane, M.; Hagstrom, M.; Pettersson, J. B. C.; Pettersson, J.; Asteman, H.; Svensson, J. E.; Johansson, L. G. Potassium, chlorine, and sulfur in ash, particles, deposits, and corrosion during wood combustion in a circulating fluidized-bed boiler Energy Fuels 2007, 21 (1) 71-81 10.1021/ef060306c
64. Al-Naiema, I.; Estillore, A. D.; Mudunkotuwa, I. A.; Grassian, V. H.; Stone, E. A. Impacts of co-firing biomass on emissions of particulate matter to the atmosphere Fuel 2015, 162, 111-120 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.08.054
65. Niemi, J. V.; Tervahattu, H.; Vehkamaki, H.; Kulmala, M.; Koskentalo, T.; Sillanpaa, M.; Rantamaki, M. Characterization and source identification of a fine particle episode in Finland Atmos. Environ. 2004, 38 (30) 5003-5012 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.06.023
66. Jensen, P. A.; Frandsen, F. J.; Hansen, J.; Dam-Johansen, K.; Henriksen, N.; Horlyck, S. SEM investigation of superheater deposits from biomass-fired boilers Energy Fuels 2004, 18 (2) 378-384 10.1021/ef030097l
67. Allen, H. M.; Draper, D. C.; Ayres, B. R.; Ault, A.; Bondy, A.; Takahama, S.; Modini, R. L.; Baumann, K.; Edgerton, E.; Knote, C.; Laskin, A.; Wang, B.; Fry, J. L. Influence of crustal dust and sea spray supermicron particle concentrations and acidity on inorganic NO3− aerosol during the 2013 Southern Oxidant and Aerosol Study Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2015, 15 (18) 10669-10685 10.5194/acp-15-10669-2015
68. Axson, J. L.; Shen, H.; Bondy, A. L.; Landry, C. C.; Welz, J.; Creamean, J. M.; Ault, A. P. Transported Mineral Dust Deposition Case Study at a Hydrologically Sensitive Mountain Site: Size and Composition Shifts in Ambient Aerosol and Snowpack Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2016, 16 (3) 555-567 10.4209/aaqr.2015.05.0346
69. Welter, E.; Calmano, W.; Mangold, S.; Troger, L. Chemical speciation of heavy metals in soils by use of XAFS spectroscopy and electron microscopical techniques Fresen. J. Anal. Chem. 1999, 364 (3) 238-244 10.1007/s002160051330
70. Wang, Y.; Cai, L.; Xia, Y. Monodisperse Spherical Colloids of Pb and Their Use as Chemical Templates to Produce Hollow Particles Adv. Mater. 2005, 17 (4) 473-477 10.1002/adma.200401416
71. Li, N.; Sioutas, C.; Cho, A.; Schmitz, D.; Misra, C.; Sempf, J.; Wang, M. Y.; Oberley, T.; Froines, J.; Nel, A. Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111 (4) 455-460 10.1289/ehp.6000
72. Chandra, S.; Kulshrestha, M. J.; Singh, R., Temporal Variation and Concentration Weighted Trajectory Analysis of Lead in PM 10 Aerosols at a Site in Central Delhi, India. Int. J. Atmos. Sci. 2014, 2014. 1 10.1155/2014/323040
73. Rajaram, B. S.; Suryawanshi, P. V.; Bhanarkar, A. D.; Rao, C. V. C. Heavy metals contamination in road dust in Delhi city, India Environ. Earth Sci. 2014, 72 (10) 3929-3938 10.1007/s12665-014-3281-y
74. Fujiwara, F.; Rebagliati, R. J.; Dawidowski, L.; Gomez, D.; Polla, G.; Pereyra, V.; Smichowski, P. Spatial and chemical patterns of size fractionated road dust collected in a megacitiy Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45 (8) 1497-1505 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.12.053
75. Bardelli, F.; Cattaruzza, E.; Gonella, F.; Rampazzo, G.; Valotto, G. Characterization of road dust collected in Traforo del San Bernardo highway tunnel: Fe and Mn speciation Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45 (35) 6459-6468 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.035
76. Tsai, C. J.; Shih, T. S.; Sheu, R. N. Characteristics of lead aerosols in different work environments Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1997, 58 (9) 650-656 10.1080/15428119791012441
77. Zheng, F. Thermophoresis of spherical and non-spherical particles: a review of theories and experiments Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2002, 97 (1-3) 255-278 10.1016/S0001-8686(01)00067-7
78. Miller, B.; Dugwell, D. R.; Kandiyoti, R. The influence of injected HCl and SO2 on the behavior of trace elements during wood-bark combustion Energy Fuels 2003, 17 (5) 1382-1391 10.1021/ef030020x
79. Adachi, K.; Chung, S. H.; Buseck, P. R. Shapes of soot aerosol particles and implications for their effects on climate J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115, D15 10.1029/2009JD012868
80. Moffet, R. C.; de Foy, B.; Molina, L. T.; Molina, M. J.; Prather, K. A. Measurement of ambient aerosols in northern Mexico City by single particle mass spectrometry Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2008, 8 (16) 4499-4516 10.5194/acp-8-4499-2008
81. Glaude, P. A.; Fournet, R.; Bounaceur, R.; Moliere, M. Adiabatic flame temperature from biofuels and fossil fuels and derived effect on NOx emissions Fuel Process. Technol. 2010, 91 (2) 229-235 10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.10.002
82. Zhang, Y. P.; Wang, X. F.; Chen, H.; Yang, X.; Chen, J. M.; Allen, J. O. Source apportionment of lead-containing aerosol particles in Shanghai using single particle mass spectrometry Chemosphere 2009, 74 (4) 501-507 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.10.004
83. Birmili, W.; Allen, A. G.; Bary, F.; Harrison, R. M. Trace metal concentrations and water solubility in size-fractionated atmospheric particles and influence of road traffic Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (4) 1144-1153 10.1021/es0486925