Opioid agonist treatment for pharmaceutical opioid dependent people

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2016, Issue 5, 2016, Pages

  Nielsen, Suzanne ^a   Larance, Briony ^a   Degenhardt, Louisa ^a   Gowing, Linda ^b   Kehler, Chyanne ^a   Lintzeris, Nicholas ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^c SOUTH EASTERN SYDNEY LOCAL HEALTH DISTRICT   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUPRENORPHINE; ILLICIT DRUG; METHADONE; OPIATE; OPIATE AGONIST; PLACEBO; NARCOTIC AGENT; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT;

DRUG DETOXIFICATION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; EMPLOYMENT; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; MAINTENANCE THERAPY; MENTAL HEALTH; METHADONE TREATMENT; OPIATE ADDICTION; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SELF REPORT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; VISUAL ANALOG SCALE; DRUG MISUSE; META ANALYSIS; OPIOID-RELATED DISORDERS; PROCEDURES;

ANALGESICS, OPIOID; BUPRENORPHINE; HUMANS; METHADONE; NARCOTICS; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; OPIOID-RELATED DISORDERS; PRESCRIPTION DRUG MISUSE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC;

EID: 84965162435     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011117.pub2     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Ahmadi J, Ahmadi K. Controlled trial of maintenance treatment of intravenous buprenorphine dependence. Irish Journal of Medical Science 2005;172(4):171-3.
2. Ahmadi J, Ahmadi K, Ohaeri J. Controlled, randomized trial in maintenance treatment of intravenous buprenorphine dependence with naltrexone, methadone or buprenorphine: a novel study. English Journal of Clinical Investigation 2003;33(9):824-9.
3. D'Onofrio G, O'Connor PG, Pantalon MV, Chawarski MC, Busch SH, Owens PH, et al. Emergency department-initiated buprenorphine/naloxone treatment for opioid dependence: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015;313(16):1636-44.
4. Fiellin D, Schottenfeld R, Cutter C, Moore B, Barry D, O'Conner P. Primary care-based buprenorphine taper v maintenance therapy for prescription opioid dependence. JAMA Internal Medicine 2014;174(12):1947-54.
5. Neumann AM, Blondell RD, Jaanimagi U, Giambrone AK, Homish GG, Lozano JR, et al. A preliminary study comparing methadone and buprenorphine in patients with chronic pain and coexistent opioid addiction. Journal of Addictive Diseases 2013;32(1):68-78.
6. Saxon AJ, Ling W, Hillhouse M, Thomas C, Hasson A, Ang A, et al. Buprenorphine/Naloxone and methadone effects on laboratory indices of liver health: a randomized trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2013;128:71-6.
7. Woody GE, Poole SA, Subramaniam G, Dugosh K, Bogenschutz M, Abbott P, et al. Extended vs short-term buprenorphine-naloxone for treatment of opioid-addicted youth: a randomized trial. JAMA 2008;300(17):2003-11.
8. Amass L, Bickel, Higgins ST, Hughes JR. A preliminary investigation of outcome following gradual or rapid buprenorphine detoxification. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1994;13(3):33-45.
9. Anglin MD, Conner BT, Annon J, Longshore D. Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM) versus methadone maintenance: 1-year treatment retention, outcomes and status. Addiction 2007;102(9):1432-42.
10. Batki SL, Bradley M, Jones T, Moon J, Schissel M, Masson C. A controlled trial of methadone treatment: preliminary analysis of effects on medical care utilization. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1998;17(2):138.
11. Cameron IM, Matheson CI, Bond CM, McNamee P, Lawrie T, Robinson A, et al. Pilot randomised controlled trial of community pharmacy administration of buprenorphine versus methadone. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice 2006;14(4):243-8.
12. Chopra MP, Landes RD, Gatchalian KM, Jackson LC, Buchhalter AR, Stitzer ML, et al. Buprenorphine medication versus voucher contingencies in promoting abstinence from opioids and cocaine. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2009;17(4):226-36.
13. Eder H, Fischer G, Gombas W, Jagsch R, Stühlinger G, Kasper S. Comparison of buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in opiate addicts. European Addiction Research 1998;4(Suppl 1):3-7.
14. Fiellin DA, Pantalon MV, Chawarski MC, Moore BA, Sullivan LE, O'Connor PG, et al. Counseling plus buprenorphine-naloxone maintenance therapy for opioid dependence. New England Journal of Medicine 2006;355(4):365-74.
15. Fischer G, Gombas W, Eder H, Jagsch R, Peternell A, Stühlinger G, et al. Buprenorphine versus methadone maintenance for the treatment of opioid dependence. Addiction 1999;94(9):1337-47.
16. Fischer G, Gombas W, Eder H, Jagsch R, Stuhlinger G, Aschauer HN, et al. Buprenorphine vs methadone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Nervenarzt 1999;70(9):795-802.
17. Fudala PJ, Bridge TP, Herbert S, Williford WO, Chiang CN, Jones K, et al. Office-based treatment of opiate addiction with a sublingual-tablet formulation of buprenorphine and naloxone. New England Journal of Medicine 2003;349(10):949-58.
18. Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D, Treacy S. Outcomes after methadone maintenance and methadone reduction treatments: two-year follow-up results from the National Treatment Outcome Research Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2001;62(3):255-64.
19. Gruber VA, Delucchi KL, Kielstein A, Batki SL. A randomized trial of 6-month methadone maintenance with standard or minimal counseling versus 21-day methadone detoxification. Drug and alcohol dependence 2008;94:199-206.
20. Hoffmann O, Frisell F, Ljungberg T. Better efficacy of buprenorphine and methadone in opioid dependence. Requirements for abstinence from non-opioids before starting treatment paid off [Battre effekt av buprenorfin och metadon vid opiatberoende. Krav pa drogfrihet fran icke-opioider fore behandlingsstart gav resultat]. Lakartidningen 2014;111(5):147-9.
21. Johnson RE, Jaffe JH, Fudala PJ. A controlled trial of buprenorphine treatment for opioid dependence. JAMA 1992;267(20):2750-5.
22. Johnson RE, Eissenberg T, Stitzer ML, Strain EC. A placebo controlled clinical trial of buprenorphine as a treatment for opioid dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1995;40(1):17-25.
23. Johnson RE, Chutuape MA, Strain EC, Walsh SL, Stitzer ML, Bigelow GE. A comparison of levomethadyl acetate, buprenorphine, and methadone for opioid dependence. New England Journal of Medicine 2000;343(18):1290-7.
24. Marsch LA, Stephens MA, Mudric T, Strain EC, Bigelow GE, Johnson RE. Predictors of outcome in LAAM, buprenorphine, and methadone treatment for opioid dependence. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2005;13(4):293-302.
25. Kakko J, Dybrandt Svanborg K, Kreek MJ, Heilig M. 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361(9358):662-8.
26. Karp-Gelernter E, Savage C, McCabe O. Evaluation of clinic attendance schedules for LAAM and methadone: a controlled study. International Journal of the Addictions 1982;17(5):805-13.
27. Kristensen O, Espegren O, Asland R, Jakobsen E, Lie O, Seiler S. Buprenorphine and methadone to opiate addicts - a randomized trial. Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening 2005;125(2):148-51.
28. Liebschutz JM, Crooks D, Herman DS, Anderson BJ, Meshesha L, Dossabhoy S, et al. Initiating buprenorphine maintenance for opiate-dependent hospitalized patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2013;28:S108-9.
29. Ling W, Wesson DR, Charuvastra C, Klett CJ. A controlled trial comparing buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in opioid dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry 1996;53(5):401-7.
30. Ling W, Charuvastra C, Collins JF, Batki S, Brown LS Jr, Kintaudi P, et al. Buprenorphine maintenance treatment of opiate dependence: a multicenter, randomized clinical trial. Addiction 1998;93(4):475-86.
31. Beebe KL, Chavoustie S, Ling W, Sigmon S, Leiderman D, Bailey G. Buprenorphine implants for the treatment of opioid dependence: six and 12 month outcomes. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;38:S266-7.
32. Ling W, Casadonte P, Bigelow G, Kampman K M, Patkar A, Bailey GL, et al. Buprenorphine implants for treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010;304:1576-83.
33. Longshore D, Annon J, Anglin MD, Rawson RA. Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM) versus methadone: treatment retention and opiate use. Addiction 2005;100(8):1131-9.
34. Maremmani I, Pani PP, Tagliamonte A, Gessa GL. Buprenorphine vs methadone: an Italian multicenter study. Giornale Italiano di Farmacia Clinica 1999;13(4):212-7.
35. McKenzie M, Zaller N, Dickman SL, Green TC, Parihk A, Friedmann PD, et al. A randomized trial of methadone initiation prior to release from incarceration. Substance Abuse 2012;33(1):19-29.
36. Montoya ID, Gorelick DA, Preston KL, Schroeder JR, Umbricht A, Cheskin LJ, et al. Randomized trial of buprenorphine for treatment of concurrent opiate and cocaine dependence. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2004;75(1):34-8.
37. Petitjean S, Stohler R, Deglon JJ, Livoti S, Waldvogel D, Uehlinger C, et al. Double-blind randomized trial of buprenorphine and methadone in opiate dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2001;62(1):97-104.
38. Piralishvili G, Otiashvili D, Sikharulidze Z, Kamkamidze G, Poole S, Woody GE. Opioid addicted buprenorphine injectors: drug use during and after 12-weeks of buprenorphine-naloxone or methadone in the Republic of Georgia. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2015;50:32-7.
39. Reimer J, Verthein U, Karow A, Schafer I, Naber D, Haasen C. Physical and mental health in severe opioid-dependent patients within a randomized controlled maintenance treatment trial. Addiction 2011;106(9):1647-55.
40. Robertson JR, Raab GM, Bruce M, McKenzie JS, Storkey HR, Salter A. Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: a randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2006;101(12):1752-9.
41. Rosenthal RN, Ling W, Casadonte P, Vocci F, Bailey GL, Kampman K, et al. Buprenorphine implants for treatment of opioid dependence: randomized comparison to placebo and sublingual buprenorphine/naloxone. Addiction 2013;108:2141-9.
42. Sees KL, Delucchi KL, Masson C, Rosen A, Clark HW, Robillard H, et al. Methadone maintenance vs 180-day psychosocially enriched detoxification for treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000;283(10):1303-10.
43. Sees KL, Delucchi KL, Reilly PM, Tusel DJ, Banys P, Clark HW. Attrition from a randomized trial comparing psychosocial treatments in a 180-day methadone detoxification clinic. NIDA Research Monograph Series 1993;132:202.
44. Sigmon SC, Dunn KE, Saulsgiver K, Patrick ME, Badger GJ, Heil SH, et al. A randomized, double-blind evaluation of buprenorphine taper duration in primary prescription opioid abusers. JAMA Psychiatry 2013;70(12):1347-54.
45. Stitzer ML, McCaul ME, Bigelow GE, Liebson I. Treatment outcome in methadone detoxification: relationship to initial levels of illicit opiate use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1983;12(3):259-67.
46. Strain EC, Stitzer ML, Liebson IA, Bigelow GE. Buprenorphine versus methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence: self-reports, urinalysis, and addiction severity index. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1996;16(1):58-67.
47. Strang J, Marsden J, Cummins M, Farrell M, Finch E, Gossop M, et al. Randomized trial of supervised injectable versus oral methadone maintenance: report of feasibility and 6-month outcome. Addiction 2000;95(11):1631-45.
48. Tennant FS Jr, Rawson RA. Outpatient treatment of prescription opioid dependence: comparison of two methods. Archives of Internal Medicine 1982;142(10):1845-7.
49. Uehlinger C, Deglon J, Livoti S, Petitjean S, Waldvogel D, Ladewig D. Comparison of buprenorphine and methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence. Swiss multicentre study. European Addiction Research 1998;4(S1):13-8.
50. Weiss R, Potter JS, Feillin DA, Byrne M, Connery HS, Dickinson W, et al. Adjunctive counseling during brief and extended buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for prescription opioid dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry 2011;68(12):1238-46.
51. Amass L, Kamien JB, Mikulich SK. Efficacy of daily and alternate-day dosing regimens with the combination buprenorphine-naloxone tablet. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2000;58(1-2):143-52. [PUBMED: 10669065]
52. Amato L, Davoli M, Perucci CA, Ferri M, Faggiano F, Mattick RP. An overview of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of opiate maintenance therapies: available evidence to inform clinical practice and research. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2005;28(4):321-9. [PUBMED: 15925266]
53. Auriacombe M, Franques P, Tignol J. Deaths attributable to methadone vs buprenorphine in France. JAMA 2001;285(1):45. [PUBMED: 11150107]
54. Banta-Green CJ, Maynard C, Koepsell TD, Wells EA, Donovan DM. Retention in methadone maintenance drug treatment for prescription-type opioid primary users compared to heroin users. Addiction 2009;104:775-83.
55. Brands B, Blake J, Sproule B, Gourlay D, Busto U. Prescription opioid abuse in patients presenting for methadone maintenance treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2004;73:199-207.
56. Caplehorn JR, Dalton MS, Haldar F, Petrenas AM, Nisbet JG. Methadone maintenance and addicts' risk of fatal heroin overdose. Substance Use & Misuse 1996;31(2):177-96. [PUBMED: 8834006]
57. Casati A, Sedefov R, Pfeiffer-Gerschel T. Misuse of medicines in the European Union: a systematic review of the literature. European Addiction Research 2012;18(5):228-45.
58. Clark N, Lintzeris N, Gijsbers A, Whelan G, Dunlop A, Ritter A, et al. LAAM maintenance vs methadone maintenance for heroin dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002210]
59. Cleeland C. The Brief Pain Inventory (BPI). 1991.
60. Compton WM, Boyle M, Wargo E. Prescription opioid abuse: problems and responses. Preventive Medicine 2015;80:5-9.
61. Degenhardt L, Larance B, Mathers B, Azim T, Kamarulzaman A, Mattick R, et al. Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and Injecting Drug Use. Benefits and risks of pharmaceutical opioids: essential treatment and diverted medication. A global review of availability, extra-medical use, injection and the association with HIV. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales 2007. [ISBN 978-0-7334-2707-7]
62. Degenhardt L, Randall D, Hall W, Law M, Butler T, Burns L. Mortality among clients of a state-wide opioid pharmacotherapy program over 20 years: risk factors and lives saved. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;105(1-2):9-15. [PUBMED: 19608355]
63. Degenhardt L, Bucello C, Mathers B, Briegleib C, Ali H, Hickman M, et al. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction 2011;106(1):32-51. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x]
64. Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P. Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002208]
65. Fischer B, Patra J, Cruz MF, Gittins J, Rehm J. Comparing heroin users and prescription opioid users in a Canadian multi-site population of illicit opioid users. Drug and Alcohol Review 2008;27:625-32.
66. Fischer B, Argento E. Prescription opioid related misuse, harms, diversion and interventions in Canada: a review. Pain Physician 2012;15(3 Suppl):ES191-203. [PUBMED: 22786457]
67. Frei M, Nielsen S, Tobin C, Dobbin M. Serious morbidity associated with misuse of over-the-counter codeine-ibuprofen analgesics: a series of 27 cases. Medical Journal of Australia 2010;193(5):294-6.
68. Gowing L, Farrell MF, Bornemann R, Sullivan LE, Ali R. Oral substitution treatment of injecting opioid users for prevention of HIV infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 8. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004145.pub4]
69. Gowing LR. The role of opioid substitution treatment in reducing HIV transmission. BMJ 2012;345:e6425.
70. Gowing LR, Hickman M, Degenhardt L. Mitigating the risk of HIV infection with opioid substitution treatment. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2013;91:148-9.
71. The GRADE working group. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2004;328:1490-4.
72. Grella CE, Lovinger K. 30-year trajectories of heroin and other drug use among men and women sampled from methadone treatment in California. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;118(2-3):251-8. [PUBMED: 21549528]
73. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Kunz R, Falck-Ytter Y, Alonso-Coello P, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2008;336(7560):924-6.
74. Guyatt G, Oxman AD, Akl EA, Kunz R, Vist G, Brozek J, et al. GRADE guidelines 1. Introduction - GRADE evidence profiles and summary of findings tables. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2011;64:383-94.
75. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
76. Hser YI, Hoffman V, Grella CE, Anglin MD. A 33-year follow-up of narcotics addicts. Archives of General Psychiatry 2001;58(5):503-8. [PUBMED: 11343531]
77. Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ, Hiripi E, Mroczek DK, Normand SL, et al. Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine 2002;32:959-76.
78. Lovibond SH, Lovibond PF. Manual for Depression and Anxiety Stress Scales. 2nd Edition. Sydney: Psychology Foundation, 1995.
79. Lusted A, Roerecke M, Goldner E, Rehm J, Fischer B. Prevalence of pain among non-medical prescription opioid users in substance use treatment populations: systematic review and meta-analyses. Pain Physician 2013;16:E671-84.
80. MacArthur GJ, Minozzi S, Martin N, Vickerman P, Deren S, Bruneau J, et al. Opiate substitution treatment and HIV transmission in people who inject drugs: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 2012;345:e5945. [PUBMED: 23038795]
81. Manchikanti L, Helm S 2nd, Fellows B, Janata JW, Pampati V, Grider JS, et al. Opioid epidemic in the United States. Pain Physician 2012;15(3 Suppl):ES9-38. [PUBMED: 22786464]
82. Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2]
83. Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4]
84. McCabe BE, Santisteban DA, Mena MP, Duchene DM, McLean C, Monroe M. Engagement, retention, and abstinence for three types of opioid users in Florida. Substance Use & Misuse 2013;48:623-34.
85. Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain 1975;1:277-99.
86. Moore BA, Fiellin DA, Barry DT, Sullivan LE, Chawarski MC, O'Connor PG, et al. Primary care office-based buprenorphine treatment: comparison of heroin and prescription opioid dependent patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2007;22:527-30.
87. Nielsen S, Cameron J, Lee N. Characteristics of a non-treatment seeking sample of over-the-counter codeine users: implications for intervention and prevention. Journal of Opioid Management 2011;7:363-70.
88. Nielsen S, Hillhouse M, Thomas C, Hasson A, Ling W. A comparison of buprenorphine taper outcomes between prescription opioid and heroin users. Journal of Addiction Medicine 2013;7:33-8.
89. Nielsen S, Roxburgh A, Bruno R, Lintzeris N, Jefferson A, Degenhardt L. Changes in non-opioid substitution treatment episodes for pharmaceutical opioids and heroin from 2002 to 2011. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;149:212-9.
90. Nielsen S, Hillhouse M, Mooney L, Ang A, Ling W. Buprenorphine pharmacotherapy and behavioral treatment: comparison of outcomes among prescription opioid users, heroin users and combination users. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2015;48:70-6.
91. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2011 national survey on drug use and health: summary of national findings. 2012; Vol. NSDUH Series H-44, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 12-4713.
92. Padaiga Z, Subata E, Vanagas G. Outpatient methadone maintenance treatment program. Quality of life and health of opioid-dependent persons in Lithuania. Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) 2007;43(3):235-41. [PUBMED: 17413253]
93. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2012.
94. Rintoul AC, Dobbin MDH, Drummer OH, Ozanne-Smith J. Increasing deaths involving oxycodone, Victoria, Australia, 2000-09. Injury Prevention 2010;17(4):254-9.
95. Roxburgh A, Bruno R, Larance B, Burns L. Prescription of opioid analgesics and related harms in Australia. Medical Journal of Australia 2011;195(5):280-4.
96. Turk DC, Dworkin RH, McDermott MP, Bellamy N, Burke LB, Chandler JM, et al. Analyzing multiple endpoints in clinical trials of pain treatments: IMMPACT recommendations. Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials. Pain 2008;139:485-93.
97. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report. Vienna: UNODC, 2012 (Sales No. E.12.XI.1).
98. van Amsterdam J, van den Brink W. The misuse of prescription opioids: a threat for Europe?. Current Drug Abuse Reviews 2015;8:3-14.
99. Walsh SL, Preston KL, Stitzer ML, Cone EJ, Bigelow GE. Clinical pharmacology of buprenorphine: ceiling effects at high doses. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1994;55(5):569-80. [PUBMED: 8181201]
100. Ware JE Jr, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Medical Care 1992;30:473-83.
101. Weich L, Perkel C, van Zyl N, Rataemane ST, Naidoo L. Medical management of opioid dependence in South Africa. South African Medical Journal 2008;98(4):280-3.
102. West NA, Severtson SG, Green JL, Dart RC. Trends in abuse and misuse of prescription opioids among older adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;149:117-21.
103. World Health Organization. WHOQOL: Measuring Quality of Life. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997.
104. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Psychosocially Assisted Pharmacological Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009. [ISBN 978 92 4 154754 3]