Plastic and marine turtles: A review and call for research

ICES Journal of Marine Science

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 165-181

  Nelms, Sarah E ^a   Duncan, Emily M ^a   Broderick, Annette C ^a   Galloway, Tamara S ^a   Godfrey, Matthew H ^b,c,d   Hamann, Mark ^e   Lindeque, Penelope K ^f   Godley, Brendan J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^b North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission   (United States)

^c DUKE UNIVERSITY MARINE LABORATORY   (United States)

^d NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^f PLYMOUTH MARINE LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ecosystem effects; Entanglement; Ghost fishing; Ingestion; Marine debris; Marine turtle; Nesting beaches; Plastic pollution

Indexed keywords

BEACH; CHEMICAL POLLUTANT; DEBRIS FLOW; ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE; GHOST FISHING; GROWTH RATE; HABITAT USE; MARINE ECOSYSTEM; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; MIGRATORY BEHAVIOR; NESTING; PERMEABILITY; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; SPECIES CONSERVATION; TEMPERATURE EFFECT; TROPHIC INTERACTION; TURTLE;

CHELONIIDAE; TESTUDINES; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 84964836215     PISSN: 10543139     EISSN: 10959289     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icesjms/fsv165     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Abecassis, M., Senina, I., Lehodey, P., Gaspar, P., Parker, D., Balazs, G., and Polovina, J. 2013. A model of loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) habitat and movement in the oceanic north Pacific. PLoS ONE, 8: e73274.
2. Abu-Hilal, A., and Al-Najjar, T. 2009. Marine litter in coral reef areas along the Jordan Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea. Journal of Environmental Management, 90: 1043-1049.
3. Aguirre, A. A., and Lutz, P. L. 2004. Marine turtles as sentinels of ecosystem health: is fibropapillomatosis an indicator? EcoHealth, 1: 275-283.
4. Allen, W. 1992. Loggerhead dies after ingesting marine debris. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 58: 10.
5. Andrady, A. L. 2015. Persistence of plastic litter in the oceans. In Marine anthropogenic litter, pp. 57-72. Ed. by M. Bergmann, L. Gutow and M. Klages. Springer, Berlin.
6. Arauz Almengor, M., and MoreraAvila, R. A. 1994. Ingestedplasticimplicated in death of juvenile hawksbill. Marine TurtleNewsletter, 64: 13.
7. Arthur, K. E., Boyle, M. C., and Limpus, C. J. 2008. Ontogenetic changes in diet and habitat use in green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) life history. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 362: 303-311.
8. Awabdi, D. R., Siciliano, S., and Di Beneditto, A. P. M. 2013. First information about the stomach contents of juvenile green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. Marine Biodiversity Records, 6: e5.
9. Azzarello, M., and Van Vleet, E. 1987. Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 37: 295-303.
10. Balazs, G. H. 1985. Status and ecology of marine turtles at Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin, 285: 1-46.
11. Balazs, G. 1984. Impact of ocean debris on marine turtles: entanglement and ingestion. In Proceedings of theworkshop on the fateand impact of marine debris, pp. 387-430.
12. Bane, G. 1992. First report of a loggerhead sea turtle fromAlaska. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 58: 1-2.
13. Barnes, D. K. A., Galgani, F., Thompson, R. C., and Barlaz, M. 2009. Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364: 1985-1998.
14. Barreiros, J. P., and Barcelos, J. 2001. Plastic ingestion by a leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea from the Azores (NE Atlantic). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42: 1196-1197.
15. Barreiros, J. P., and Raykov, V. S. 2014. Lethal lesions and amputation caused by plastic debris and fishing gear on the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758). Three case reports from Terceira Island, Azores (NE Atlantic). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 86: 518-522.
16. Bartol, S., and Musick, J. 2003. Sensory biology of sea turtles. In The Biology of Sea Turtles, 2, pp. 79-102. Ed. by J. Lutz, P. L. Musick, and J. A.Wyneken. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
17. Battin, J. 2004. When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations. Conservation Biology, 18: 1482-1491.
18. Baulch, S., and Perry, C. 2014. Evaluating the impacts of marine debris on cetaceans. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 80: 210-221.
19. Bentivegna, F. 1995. Endoscopic removal of polyethylene cord from a loggerhead turtle. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 71: 5.
20. Benton, T. G., Solan, M., Travis, J.M. J., and Sait, S. M. 2007. Microcosm experiments can inform global ecological problems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22: 516-521.
21. Bezerra, D. P., and Bondioli, A. C. V. 2011. Ingestão de resíduos inorgâ- nicos por Chelonia mydas na área de alimentação do Complexo Estuarino Lagunar de Cananéia. In Proceedings of the V Jornada sobre Tartarugas Marinhas do Atlântico Sul Ocidental, São Paulo, Brasil, pp. 51-54.
22. Bjorndal, K. A. 1997. Foraging ecology and nutrition of sea turtles. In The Biology of Sea Turtles, pp. 397-409. Ed. by P. L. Lutz, and J. Musick. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
23. Bjorndal, K. A., Bolten, A. B., and Lagueux, C. J. 1994. Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 28: 154-158.
24. Blumenthal, J. M., Austin, T. J., Bothwell, J. B., Broderick, A. C., Ebanks-Petrie, G., Olynik, J. R., Orr, M. F., et al. 2009. Diving behavior and movements of juvenile hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata on a Caribbean coral reef. Coral Reefs, 28: 55-65.
25. Bolten, A. 2003. Variation in sea turtle life history patterns: neritic vs. oceanic developmental stages. In The Biology of Sea Turtles, 2, pp. 243-257. Ed. by J. Musick, J. Wyneken, and P. L. Lutz. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
26. Bond, A. L., Provencher, J. F., Daoust, P-Y., and Lucas, Z. N. 2014. Plastic ingestion by fulmars and shearwaters at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 87: 68-75.
27. Bowen, B.W., and Karl, S. A. 2007. Population genetics and phylogeography of sea turtles. Molecular Ecology, 16: 4886-4907.
28. Boyle, M. C. 2006. Post-hatchling sea turtle biology. PhD thesis. 128 pp.
29. Boyle, M. C., Fitzsimmons, N. N., Limpus, C. J., Kelez, S., Velez-Zuazo, X., and Waycott, M. 2009. Evidence for transoceanic migrations by loggerhead sea turtles in the southern Pacific Ocean. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276: 1993-1999.
30. Boyle, M. C., and Limpus, C. J. 2008. The stomach contents of posthatchling green and loggerhead sea turtles in the southwest Pacific: an insight into habitat association. Marine Biology, 155: 233-241.
31. Brown, J., and Macfadyen, G. 2007. Ghost fishing in European waters: impacts and management responses. Marine Policy, 31: 488-504.
32. Bugoni, L., Krause, L., and Petry, M. V. 2001. Marine debris and human impacts on sea turtles in southern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42: 1330-1334.
33. Burke, V., Morreale, S., and Standora, E. 1994. Diet of the Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii, in New York waters. US National Marine Fisheries Service Fishery Bulletin, 92 pp.
34. Camedda, A., Marra, S., Matiddi, M., Massaro, G., Coppa, S., Perilli, A., Ruiu, A., et al. 2014. Interaction between loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and marine litter in Sardinia (Western Mediterranean Sea). Marine Environmental Research, 100: 25-32.
35. Campani, T., Baini, M., Giannetti, M., Cancelli, F., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Marsili, L., et al. 2013. Presence of plastic debris in loggerhead turtle stranded along the Tuscany coasts of the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals (Italy). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 74: 225-230.
36. Cannon, A. C. 1998. Gross necropsy results of sea turtles stranded on the upper Texas and western Louisiana coasts, 1 January-31 December 1994 in characteristics and causes of Texas marine strandings, pp. 81-85. US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
37. Carr, A. 1987. Impact of nondegradable marine debris on the ecology and survival outlook of sea turtles. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 18: 352-356.
38. Carson, H. S., Colbert, S. L., Kaylor, M. J., and McDermid, K. J. 2011. Small plastic debris changes water movement and heat transfer through beach sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 1708-1713.
39. Casale, P., Abbate, G., Freggi, D., Conte, N., Oliverio, M., and Argano, R. 2008. Foraging ecology of loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta in the central Mediterranean Sea: evidence for a relaxed life history model. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 372: 265-276.
40. Casale, P., Affronte, M., Insacco, G., Freggi, D., Vallini, C., Pino D'Astore, P., Basso, R., et al. 2010. Sea turtle strandings reveal high anthropogenic mortality in Italian waters. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 20: 611-620.
41. Chacón-Chaverri, D., and Eckert, K. L. 2007. Leatherback sea turtle nesting at Gandoca beach in Caribbean Costa Rica: management recommendations from fifteen years of conservation. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 6: 101-110.
42. Chatto, R. 1995. Sea turtles killed by flotsam in northern Australia. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 69: 17-18.
43. Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., and Galloway, T. S. 2015. The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Environmental Science and Technology, 49: 1130-1137.
44. Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., Goodhead, R., Moger, J., and Galloway, T. S. 2013. Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton. Environmental Science and Technology, 47: 6646-6655.
45. Cózar, A., Echevarría, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Ubeda, B., Hernández-León, S., Palma, A. T., et al. 2014. Plastic debris in the open ocean. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111: 10239-10244.
46. Cózar, A., Sanz-Martín, M., Martí, E., González-Gordillo, J. I., Ubeda, B., Gálvez, J. A., Irigoien, X., et al. 2015. Plastic accumulation in the mediterranean sea. PLoS ONE, 10: e0121762.
47. da Silva Mendes, S., de Carvalho, R. H., de Faria, A. F., and de Sousa, B. M. 2015. Marine debris ingestion by Chelonia mydas (Testudines: Cheloniidae) on the Brazilian coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 92: 8-10.
48. Davenport, J., Balazs, G. H., Faithfull, J., and Williamson, D. A. 1993. A struvite faecolith in the leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea Vandelli. A means of packaging garbage? Herpetological Journal, 3: 81-83.
49. Derraik, J. G. B. 2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 842-852.
50. Di Bello, A., Valastro, C., Freggi, D., Lai, O. R., Crescenzo, G., and Franchini, D. 2013. Surgical treatment of injuries caused by fishing gear in the intracoelomic digestive tract of sea turtles. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 106: 93-102.
51. Di Beneditto, A. P. M., and Awabdi, D. R. 2014. How marine debris ingestion differs among megafauna species in a tropical coastal area. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 88: 86-90.
52. Duguy, R., Moriniere, P., and Meunier, A. 2000. L'ingestion des déchets flottants par la tortue luth Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) dans le Golfe de Gascogne. In Annales de la Sociétédes Sciences Naturelles de la Charente-Maritimes, pp. 1035-1038.
53. Eckert, K. L., and Hemphill, A. H. 2005. Sea turtles as flagships for protection of the wider Caribbean region. Mast, 3: 119-143.
54. Eckert, K. L., and Luginbuhl, C. 1988. Death of a giant. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 43: 2-3.
55. Eriksson, C., and Burton, H. 2003. Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic particles in fur seals from Macquarie Island. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 32: 380-384.
56. Flint, M., Patterson-Kane, J. C., Limpus, C. J., and Mills, P. C. 2010. Health surveillance of stranded green turtles in Southern Queensland, Australia (2006-2009): An epidemiological analysis of causes of disease and mortality. EcoHealth, 7: 135-145.
57. Foley, A. M., Singel, K. E., Dutton, P. H., Summers, T. M., Redlow, A. E., and Lessman, J. 2007. Characteristics of a green turtle (Chelonia mydas) assemblage in northwestern Florida determined during a hypothermic stunning event. Gulf of Mexico Science, 25: 131-143.
58. Fossette, S., Gleiss, A. C., Myers, A. E., Garner, S., Liebsch, N., Whitney, N. M., Hays, G. C., et al. 2010. Behaviour and buoyancy regulation in the deepest-diving reptile: the leatherback turtle. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 213: 4074-4083.
59. Frick, M. G., Williams, K. L., Bolten, A., Bjorndal, K., and Martins, H. 2009. Foraging ecology of oceanic-stage loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. Endangered Species Research, 9: 91-97.
60. Frick, M. G., Williams, K. L., and Pierrard, L. 2001. Summertime foraging and feeding by immature loggerheads sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from Georgia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 4: 178-181.
61. Fuentes, M., Limpus, C., Hamann, M., and Dawson, J. 2009. Potential impacts of projected sea-level rise on sea turtle rookeries. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 20: 132-139.
62. Gall, S. C., and Thompson, R. C. 2015. The impact of debris on marine life. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 92: 170-179.
63. Garnett, S., Price, R., and Scott, F. 1985. The diet of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas (L.), in Torres Strait. Australian Wildlife Research, 12: 103-112.
64. Goatley, C. H. R., Hoey, A. S., and Bellwood, D. R. 2012. The role of turtles as coral reef macroherbivores. PLoS ONE, 7: e39979.
65. González Carman, V., Acha, E. M., Maxwell, S. M., Albareda, D., Campagna, C., and Mianzan, H. 2014. Young green turtles, Chelonia mydas, exposed to plastic in a frontal area of the SW Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 78: 56-62.
66. Greenland, J. A., and Limpus, C. J. 2003. Marine wildlife stranding and mortality database annual report 2003 III. Marine Turtles. Conservation Technical and Data Report, 2003.
67. Gregory, M. R. 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings-entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364: 2013-2025.
68. Guebert-Bartholo, F., Barletta, M., Costa, M., and Monteiro-Filho, E. 2011. Using gut contents to assess foraging patterns of juvenile green turtles Chelonia mydas in the Paranagua Estuary, Brazil. Endangered Species Research, 13: 131-143.
69. Hall, N. M., Berry, K. L. E., Rintoul, L., and Hoogenboom, M. O. 2015. Microplastic ingestion by scleractinian corals. Marine Biology, 162: 725-732.
70. Hamann, M., Grech, A., Wolanski, E., and Lambrechts, J. 2011. Modelling the fate of marine turtle hatchlings. Ecological Modelling, 222: 1515-1521.
71. Hasbún, C. R., Lawrence, A. J., Samour, J. H., and Al-Ghais, S. M. 2000. Preliminary observations on the biology of green turtles, Chelonia mydas, from the United Arab Emirates. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 10: 311-322.
72. Hawkes, L. A., Broderick, A. C., Coyne, M. S., Godfrey, M. H., Lopez-Jurado, L. F., Lopez-Suarez, P., Merino, S. E., et al. 2006. Phenotypically linked dichotomy in sea turtle foraging requires multiple conservation approaches. Current Biology, 16: 990-995.
73. Hawkes, L., Broderick, A., Godfrey, M., and Godley, B. 2009. Climate change and marine turtles. Endangered Species Research, 7: 137-154.
74. Hazel, J., and Gyuris, E. 2006. Vessel-related mortality of sea turtles in Queensland, Australia.Wildlife Research, 33: 149-154.
75. Hoarau, L., Ainley, L., Jean, C., and Ciccione, S. 2014. Ingestion and defecation of marine debris by loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, from by-catches in the South-West Indian Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 84: 90-96.
76. Ivar do Sul, J. A., Santos, I. R., Friedrich, A. C., Matthiensen, A., and Fillmann, G. 2011. Plastic pollution at a sea turtle conservation area in NE Brazil: contrasting developed and undeveloped beaches. Estuaries and Coasts, 34: 814-823.
77. Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R., et al. 2015. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347: 768-771.
78. Jensen, M., Limpus, C., Whiting, S., Guinea, M., Prince, R., Dethmers, K., Adnyana, I., et al. 2013. Defining olive ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea management units in Australia and assessing the potential impact of mortality in ghost nets. Endangered Species Research, 21: 241-253.
79. Kaska, Y., Celik, A., Bag, H., Aureggi, M., Ozel, K., Elci, A., Kaska, A., et al. 2004. Heavy metal monitoring in stranded sea turtles along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 13: 769-776.
80. Koelmans, A. A. 2015. Modeling the role of microplastics in bioaccumulation of organic chemicals to marine aquatic organisms. A critical review. In Marine anthropogenic litter, pp. 309-324. Ed. by M. Bergmann, L. Gutow and M. Klages. Springer, Berlin.
81. Labrada-Martagón, V., Méndez-Rodríguez, L. C., Gardner, S. C., López-Castro, M., and Zenteno-Savín, T. 2010. Health indices of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) along the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur, Mexico. I. Blood Biochemistry Values. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 9: 162-172.
82. Landsberg, J. H., Balazs, G. H., Steidinger, K. A., Baden, D. G., Wada, M., Work, T. M., Rabalais, N. N., et al. 1999. The potential role of natural tumor promoters in marine turtle fibropapillomatosis. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health, 11: 199-210.
83. Lazar, B., and Gračan, R. 2011. Ingestion of marine debris by loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, in the Adriatic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 43-47.
84. León, Y. M., and Bjorndal, K. A. 2002. Selective feeding in the hawksbill turtle, an important predator in coral reef ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 245: 249-258.
85. Lewison, R., Crowder, L., Read, A., and Freeman, S. 2004. Understanding impacts of fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19: 598-604.
86. Limpus, C., and Limpus, D. 2001. The loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, inQueensland: breeding migrations and fidelity to awarmtemperate feeding area. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 4: 142-153.
87. López-Castro, M. C., Bjorndal, K. A., Kamenov, G. D., Zenil-Ferguson, R., and Bolten, A. B. 2013. Sea turtle population structure and connections between oceanic and neritic foraging areas in the Atlantic revealed through trace elements. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 490: 233-246.
88. Lopez-Jurado, L. F., Varo-Cruz, N., and Lopez-Suarez, P. 2003. Incidental capture of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) on Boa Vista (Cape Verde Islands). Marine Turtle Newsletter, 101: 14-16.
89. López-Mendilaharsu, M., Gardner, S. C., Seminoff, J. A., and Riosmena-Rodriguez, R. 2005. Identifying critical foraging habitats of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) along thePacific coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 15: 259-269.
90. Lucas, Z. 1992.Monitoring persistent litter in the marine environment on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24: 192-198.
91. Lusher, A. 2015. Microplastics in the marine environment: distribution, interactions and effects. In Marine anthropogenic litter, pp. 245- 307. Ed. by M. Bergmann, L. Gutow and M. Klages. Springer, Berlin.
92. Lutz, P. 1990. Studies on the ingestion of plastic and latex by sea turtles. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, pp. 2-7. Ed. by R. S. Shomura, and M. L. Godfrey. US Department of Commerce NOM Tech Memo, NMFS. NOMTM- NMFS-SUFSC-15, Honolulu, Hawaii.
93. Mansfield, K. L., Wyneken, J., Porter, W. P., and Luo, J. 2014. First satellite tracks of neonate sea turtles redefine the "lost years" oceanic niche. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281: 20133039.
94. Mascarenhas, R., Santos, R., and Zeppelini, D. 2004. Plastic debris ingestion by sea turtle in Paraiba, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49: 354-355.
95. Matsumoto, Y., Hannigan, B., and Crews, D. 2014. Embryonic PCB exposure alters phenotypic, genetic, and epigenetic profiles in turtle sex determination, a biomarker of environmental contamination. Endocrinology, 155: 4168-4177.
96. Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., and Nagasawa, N. 2005. A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions. Fisheries Science, 71: 691-702.
97. McCauley, S. J., and Bjorndal, K. A. 1999. Dietary dilution from debris ingestion: sublethal effects in post-hatchling loggerhead sea turtles. Conservation Biology, 13: 925-929.
98. McMahon, C. R., Holley, D., and Robinson, S. 1999. The diet of itinerant male Hooker's sea lions, Phocarctos hookeri, at sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island.Wildlife Research, 26: 839-846.
99. Mrosovsky, N. 1981. Plastic jellyfish. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 17: 5-7.
100. Mrosovsky, N., Ryan, G.D., and James, M. C. 2009. Leatherback turtles: the menace of plastic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58: 287-289.
101. MSFD GES Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter. 2011. Marine Strategy Framework Directive. 91 pp. http://www.ices.dk/news-and-events/ themes/Managementreports/TG2Report-Final-vII.pdf (last accessed 14 September 2015).
102. Oehlmann, J., Schulte-Oehlmann, U., Kloas, W., Jagnytsch, O., Lutz, I., Kusk, K. O., Wollenberger, L., et al. 2009. A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364: 2047-2062.
103. Özdilek, H. G., Yalçin-Özdilek, Ş ., Ozaner, F. S., and Sönmez, B. 2006. Impact of accumulated beach litter on Chelonia mydas L. 1758 (green turtle) hatchlings of the Samanda? coast, Hatay, Turkey. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 15: 1-9.
104. Parga, M. L. 2012. Hooks and sea turtles: a veterinarian's perspective. Bulletin of Marine Science, 88: 731-741.
105. Parker, D., Cooke, W., and Balazs, G. 2005. Diet of oceanic loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the central North Pacific. Fishery Bulletin, 103: 142-152.
106. Parker, D. M., Dutton, P. H., and Balazs, G. H. 2011. Oceanic diet and distribution of haplotypes for the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, in the Central North Pacific. Pacific Science, 65: 419-431.
107. Parra, M., Deem, S. L., and Espinoza, E. 2011. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) mortality in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador during the 2009-2010 nesting season. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 130: 10-15.
108. Peckham, S. H., Maldonado-Diaz, D., Tremblay, Y., Ochoa, R., Polovina, J., Balazs, G., Dutton, P. H., et al. 2011. Demographic implications of alternative foraging strategies in juvenile loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta of the North Pacific Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 425: 269-280.
109. Pikesley, S. K., Broderick, A. C., Cejudo, D., Coyne, M. S., Godfrey, M. H., Godley, B. J., Lopez, P., et al. 2014. Modelling the niche for a marine vertebrate: a case study incorporating behavioural plasticity, proximate threats and climate change. Ecography, 38: 001-010.
110. Pikesley, S. K., Maxwell, S. M., Pendoley, K., Costa, D. P., Coyne, M. S., Formia, A., Godley, B. J., et al. 2013. On the front line: integrated habitat mapping for olive ridley sea turtles in the Southeast Atlantic. Diversity and Distributions, 19: 1518-1530.
111. Plastics - the facts 2015 (PlasticsEurope, Brussels, Belgium, 2015). http:// www.plasticseurope.org/Document/plastics-the-facts-20142015.aspx?FolID=2 (last accessed 14 September 2015).
112. Plot, V., and Georges, J-Y. 2010. Plastic debris in a nesting leatherback turtle in French Guiana. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 9: 267-270.
113. Plotkin, P. T., and Amos, A. F. 1988. Entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris by sea turtles stranded along the South Texas coast. In Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, pp. 79-82. Ed. by B. A. Schroeder. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-214, Forth Fisher, South Carolina.
114. Plotkin, P., and Amos, A. 1990. Effects of anthropogenic debris on sea turtles in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, pp. 736-743. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-154, Honolulu, Hawaii.
115. Plotkin, P. T., Wicksten, M. K., and Amos, A. F. 1993. Feeding ecology of the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Biology, 115: 1-5.
116. Poeta, G., Battisti, C., and Acosta, A. T. R. 2014. Marine litter in Mediterranean sandy littorals: spatial distribution patterns along central Italy coastal dunes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 89: 168-173.
117. Poli, C., Lopez, L., Mesquita, D., Saska, C., and Mascarenhas, R. 2014. Patterns and inferred processes associated with sea turtle strandings in Paraíba State, Northeast Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 74: 283-289.
118. Putman, N. F., Verley, P., Shay, T. J., and Lohmann, K. J. 2012. Simulating transoceanic migrations of young loggerhead sea turtles: merging magnetic navigation behavior with an ocean circulation model. Journal of Experimental Biology, 215: 1863-1870.
119. Quiñones, J., Carman, V. G., Zeballos, J., Purca, S., and Mianzan, H. 2010. Effects of El Niño-driven environmental variability on black turtle migration to Peruvian foraging grounds. Hydrobiologia, 645: 69-79.
120. Ramos, J., Pincetich, C., Adams, L., Santos, K. C., Hage, J., and Arauz, R. 2012. Quantification and recommended management of man-made debris along the sea turtle nesting beach at Playa Caletas, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 134: 12-17.
121. Reinhold, L. 2015. Absence of ingested plastics in 20 necropsied sea turtles inWestern Australia. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 144: 13-15.
122. Reisser, J., Proietti, M., Shaw, J., and Pattiaratchi, C. 2014a. Ingestion of plastics at sea: does debris size really matter? Frontiers in Marine Science, 1: 1-2.
123. Reisser, J., Slat, B., Noble, K., Plessis, K., Epp, M., and Proietti, M. 2014b. The vertical distribution of buoyant plastics at sea. Biogeosciences Discuss, 11: 16207-16226.
124. Revelles, M., Cardona, L., Aguilar, A., Borrell, A., Fernández, G., and Félix, M. S. 2007. Stable C and N isotope concentration in several tissues of the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta from the western Mediterranean and dietary implications. Scientia Marina, 71: 87-93.
125. Richards, Z. T., and Beger, M. 2011. A quantification of the standing stock of macro-debris in Majuro lagoon and its effect on hard coral communities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 1693-1701.
126. Rochman, C. M., Browne, M. A., Halpern, B. S., Hentschel, B. T., Hoh, E., Karapanagioti, H. K., Rios-Mendoza, L. M., et al. 2013a. Classify plastic waste as hazardous. Nature, 494: 169-171.
127. Rochman, C. M., Hoh, E., Kurobe, T., and Teh, S. J. 2013b. Ingested plastic transfers hazardous chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. Scientific Reports, 3: 3263.
128. Ross, J. P. 1985. Biology of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, on an Arabian feeding ground. Journal of Herpetology, 19: 459-468.
129. Russo, G., Di Bella, C., Loria, G. R., Insacco, G., Palazzo, P., Violani, C., and Zava, B. 2003. Notes on the influence of human activities on sea chelonians in Sicilian waters. Journal of Mountain Ecology, 7: 37-41.
130. Sadove, S., and Morreale, S. 1989. Marine mammal and sea turtle encounters with marine debris in the NewYork Bight and the northeast Atlantic. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Marine Debris, pp. 2-7. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu.
131. Santos, A. J. B., Bellini, C., Bortolon, L. F., and Coluchi, R. 2012. Ghost nets haunt the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) near the Brazilian Islands of Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas. Herpetological Review, 43: 245-246.
132. Santos, R. G., Andrades, R., Boldrini, M. A., and Martins, A. S. 2015. Debris ingestion by juvenile marine turtles: an underestimated problem. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 93: 37-43.
133. Santos, R. G., Martins, A. S., Farias, J.D. N., Horta, P. A., Pinheiro, H. T., Torezani, E., Baptistotte, C., et al. 2011. Coastal habitat degradation and green sea turtle diets in Southeastern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 1297-1302.
134. Sazima, C., Grossman, A., and Sazima, I. 2010.Turtle cleaners: reef fishes foraging on epibionts of sea turtles in the tropical Southwestern Atlantic, with a summary of this association type. Neotropical Ichthyology, 8: 187-192.
135. Scales, K. L., Miller, P. I., Embling, C. B., Ingram, S. N., Pirotta, E., Stephen, C., and Votier, S. C. 2014. Mesoscale fronts as foraging habitats: composite front mapping reveals oceanographic drivers of habitat use for a pelagic seabird. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 11: 20140679.
136. Scales, K. L., Miller, P. I., Varo-Cruz, N., Hodgson, D. J., Hawkes, L. A., and Godley, B. J. 2015. Oceanic loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta associate with thermal fronts: evidence from the Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 519: 195-207.
137. Schuyler, Q., Hardesty, B.D., Wilcox, C., and Townsend, K. 2012. To eat or not to eat? Debris selectivity by marine turtles. PLoS ONE, 7: e40884.
138. Schuyler, Q., Hardesty, B.D., Wilcox, C., and Townsend, K. 2014. Global analysisof anthropogenic debris ingestion by sea turtles.Conservation Biology, 28: 129-139.
139. Scott, R., Biastoch, A., Roder, C., Stiebens, V. A., and Eizaguirre, C. 2014. Nano-tags for neonates and ocean-mediated swimming behaviours linked to rapid dispersal of hatchling sea turtles. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281: 20141209.
140. Seminoff, J., Resendiz, A., and Nichols, W. 2002. Diet of east Pacific green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the central Gulf of California, México. Journal of Herpetology, 36: 447-453.
141. Seney, E. E., and Musick, J. A. 2007. Historical diet analysis of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in Virginia. Copeia, 2: 478-489.
142. Shaver, D. J. 1991. Feeding ecology of wild and head-started Kemp's ridley sea turtles in south Texas waters. Journal of Herpetology, 25: 327-334.
143. Shaver, D. J. 1998. Sea turtle strandings along the Texas coast, 1980-94. In Characteristics and Causes of Texas Marine Strandings, pp. 57-72.US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Technical Report, 143. National Marine Fisheries.
144. Sigler, M. 2014. The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic wildlife: current situations and future solutions.Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 225: 2184.
145. Smith, S. D. A., and Edgar, R. J. 2014. Documenting the density of subtidal marine debris across multiple marine and coastal habitats.PLoS ONE, 9: e94593.
146. Snoddy, J. E., Landon, M., Blanvillain, G., and Southwood, A. 2009. Blood biochemistry of sea turtles captured in gillnets in the lower Cape Fear river, North Carolina, USA. Journal of Wildlife Management, 73: 1394-1401.
147. Stahelin, G., Hennemann, M., Cegoni, C., Wanderlinde, J., Lima, E., and Goldberg, D. 2012. Ingestion of a massive amount of debris by a green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Southern Brazil. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 135: 6-8.
148. Stamper, M. A., Harms, C., Epperly, S. P., Braun-McNeill, J., Avens, L., and Stoskopf, M. K. 2005. Relationship between barnacle epibiotic load and hematologic parameters in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), a comparison between migratory and residential animals in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 36: 635-641.
149. Stelfox, M., Balson, D., and Hudgins, J. 2014. Olive ridley project: actively fighting ghost nets in the Indian Ocean. Indian Ocean Turtle Newsletter 23-26.
150. StrandNet Database. 2015. https://www.ehp.qld.gov.au/wildlife/caringfor- wildlife/strandnet-reports.html#marine-turtles (last accessed 14 September 2015).
151. Swimmer, Y., Arauz, R., Higgins, B., McNaughton, L., McCracken, M., Ballestero, J., and Brill, R. 2005. Food color and marine turtle feeding behavior: can blue bait reduce turtle bycatch incommercial fisheries? Marine Ecology Progress Series, 295: 273-278.
152. Tomás, J., Aznar, F. J., and Raga, J. A. 2001. Feeding ecology of the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta in the western Mediterranean. Hippocampus, 255: 525-532.
153. Tomás, J., Guitart, R., Mateo, R., and Raga, J. A. 2002. Marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, from the Western Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 211-216.
154. Tomillo, P. S., Paladino, F.V., Suss, J. S., and Spotila, J. R. 2010. Predation of leatherback turtle hatchlings during the crawl to the water. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 9: 18-25.
155. Tourinho, P. S., Ivar do Sul, J. A., and Fillmann, G. 2010. Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60: 396-401.
156. Triessnig, P. 2012. Beach condition and marine debris: new hurdles for sea turtle hatchling survival. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 11: 68-77.
157. Turra, A., Manzano, A. B., Dias, R. J. S., Mahiques, M. M., Barbosa, L., Balthazar-Silva, D., and Moreira, F. T. 2014. Three-dimensional distribution of plastic pellets in sandy beaches: shifting paradigms. Scientific Reports, 4: 4435.
158. Vegter, A., Barletta, M., Beck, C., Borrero, J., Burton, H., Campbell, M., Costa, M., et al. 2014. Global research priorities to mitigate plastic pollution impacts on marine wildlife. Endangered Species Research, 25: 225-247.
159. Velander, K., and Mocogni, M. 1999. Beach litter sampling strategies: is there a "best" method? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38: 1134-1140.
160. Wabnitz, C., and Nichols, W. J. 2010. Plastic pollution: an ocean emergency. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 129: 1-4.
161. Wiemeyer, S. N., Bunck, C. M., and Stafford, C. J. 1993. Environmental contaminants in bald eagle eggs - 1980-84 - and further interpretations of relationships to productivity and shell thickness. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 24: 213-227.
162. Wilcox, C., Hardesty, B., Sharples, R., Griffin, D., Lawson, T., and Gunn, R. 2013. Ghostnet impacts on globally threatened turtles, a spatial risk analysis for northern Australia. Conservation Letters, 6: 247-254.
163. Wilcox, C., Heathcote, G., Goldberg, J., Gunn, R., Peel, D., and Hardesty, B.D. 2014. Understanding the sources and effects of abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gear on marine turtles in northern Australia. Conservation Biology, 29: 198-206.
164. Witherington, B. E. 1994. Flotsam, jetsam, post-hatchling loggerheads, and the advecting surface smorgasbord. In Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Ed. by K. A. Bjorndal, A. B. Bolten, D. A. Johnson, and P. J. Eliazar. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC- 351 (Vol. 166168).
165. Witherington, B. E. 2002. Ecology of neonate loggerhead turtles inhabiting lines of downwelling near a Gulf Stream front. Marine Biology, 140: 843-853.
166. Witherington, B., Hirama, S., and Hardy, R. 2012.Young sea turtles of the pelagic Sargassum-dominated drift community: habitat use, population density, and threats. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 463: 1-22.
167. Witt, M. J., and Godley, B. J. 2007. A step towards seascape scale conservation: using vessel monitoring systems (VMS) to map fishing activity. PLoS ONE, 2: e1111.
168. Witt, M. J., Hawkes, L. A., Godfrey, M. H., Godley, B. J., and Broderick, A. C. 2010. Predicting the impacts of climate change on a globally distributed species: the case of the loggerhead turtle. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 213: 901-911.
169. Wright, S. L., Thompson, R. C., and Galloway, T. S. 2013. The physical impacts of microplastics on 1089 marine organisms: a review. Environmental Pollution, 178: 483-492.