Human rights in Israel

Israel Law Review

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 12-34

  Barak, Aharon ^a  

^a Israeli Supreme Court ^*  (Israel)

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EID: 84964656407     PISSN: 00212237     EISSN: 20479336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021223700012991     Document Type: Article

References (198)

1. See Ran Hirschl, Israel's “Constitutional Revolution ”: The Legal Interpretation of Entrenched Civil Liberties in an Emerging Neo-Liberal Economic Order, 46 Am. J. Comp. L. 427 (1998)
2. 12 YORAM DINSTEIN, ISRAEL YEARBOOK ON HUMAN RIGHTS (1982)
3. Raphael Israeli & Rachel Ehrenfeld, Between the Peak and the Pit: Human Rights in Israel, 13 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 403 (1987)
4. Izhak Englard, Uri and Caroline Bauer Memorial Lecture: Human Dignity: From Antiquity to Modern Israel's Constitutional Framework, 21 Cardozo L. Rev. 1903 (1999)
5. Roger I. Zakheim, Israel in the Human Rights Era: Finding a MoralJustification for the Jewish State, 36 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 1005 (2004)
6. Baruch Bracha, Constitutional Upgrading of Human Rights in Israel: The Impact on Administrative Law, 3 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 581 (2001)
7. Stephen Goldstein, Protection of Human Rights by Judges: The Israeli Experience, 38 St. Louis L.J. 605 (1993)
8. Daphna Barak-Erez, From an Unwritten to a Written Constitution: The Israeli Challenge in American Perspective, 26 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 309 (1995).
9. This approach was primarily developed in HCJ 73/53 Kol Ha'am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, [1953] IsrSC 7 871, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/53/730/000/z01/53000730.z01.htm (last visited June 1, 2006)
10. since then it was embraced in numerous judgments. See Aharon Barak, President Agranat: “Kol Ha'am”—The Voice of the People, in Essays in Honor of Shimon Agranat 129 (Ruth Gavison & Mordechi Kremnitzer eds., 1986) [in Hebrew]
11. Aharon Barak, 1 Selected Essays 575 (C. Cohen & Y. Zamir eds., 2002) [in Hebrew]
12. Aharon Barak, Constitutional Law Without A Constitution: The Role of the Judiciary, in The Role of Courts in Society 448 (Shimon Shetreet ed., 1988)
13. Zeev Segal, A Constitution Without a Constitution: The Israeli Experience and the American Impact, 21 Cap. U. L. Rev. 1 (1992).
14. See Aharon Barak, Purposive Interpretation in Law (2005).
15. See HCJ 75/76 “Hilron” v. The Fruit Council [1976] IsrSC 30(3) 645
16. CFH 9/77 Israel Electric Company Ltd. v. “Ha'aretz” Newspaper Publishing Ltd. [1978] IsrSC 32(3) 337, 359, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/77/090/000/z01/77000090.z01.HTM (last visited June 1, 2006)
17. HCJ 390/79 Duikat v. The Government of Israel [1979] IsrSC 34(1).
18. See CA 524/88 “Pri Ha'emek” v. Sde Yaacov [1991] IsrSC 45(4) 529, 561
19. CA 696/81 Azulai v. The State of Israel [1983] IsrSC 37(2) 565
20. CFH 13/85 The Municipality of Tel- Aviv-Jaffa v. Lubin [1985] IsrSC 13 118, 122.
21. See HCJ 1/49 Bejerano v. The Minister of Police [1949] IsrSC 2, 80
22. HCJ 337/81 Miterani v. The Minister of Transportation [1983] IsrSC 37(3) 337
23. LTA 3126/00 The State of Israel v. ESHET Projects Management [2003] IsrSC 57(3) 220
24. HCJ 6051/95 Rekanat v. The National Labor Court [1997] IsrSC 51 (3) 289
25. CA 6821/93 United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 221.
26. See Kol Ha ‘am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, IsrSC
27. Israel Electric Company Ltd. v. “Ha ‘aretz ” Newspaper Publishing Ltd. IsrSC, at 361
28. Aharon Barak, Foreword: A Judge on Judging: The Role of a Supreme Court in a Democracy, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 16, 93 (2002).
29. The Press Ordinance, 1929–5689 70 LSI 1191 (Isr.).
30. See id. at Sec 19.
31. See Kol Ha ‘am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, id, at 888–889.
32. See HCJ 680/88 Schnitzer v. The Chief Military Censor [1989] IsrSC 42 (4) 617.
33. See HCJ 5016/96 Horev v. The Minister of Transportation [1997] IsrSC 51 (4) 1
34. HCJ 6055/95 Sagi Tzemach v. The Minister of Defense [1999] IsrSC 53(5) 241, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il /files _eng /95/550/060/i 15/95060550. il5.htm (last visited June 6, 2006).
35. See Zaharah R. Markoe, Expressing Oneself Without a Constitution: The Israeli Story, 8 Cardozo J. Int'l & Comp. L. 319 (2000)
36. Avi Weitzman, A Tale of Two Cities: Yitzhak Rabin's Assassination, Free Speech, and Israel's Religious-Secular Kulturkampf, 15 Emory Int'l L. Rev. 1 (2001)
37. Iddo Porat & Issachar Rosen-Zvi, Who's Afraid of Channel 7?: Ideological Radio and Freedom of Speech in Israel, 38 Stan. J. Int'l L. 79 (2002).
38. See Hilron v. The Fruit Council, Stan. J. Int'l L.
39. HCJ 14/78 Agbaria v. The Fruit Council [1978] IsrSC 32(3) 794
40. HCJ 338/78 Margaliyot v. The Minister of Justice [1978] IsrSC 42(1) 112.
41. See HCJ 672/87 Atmalla v. The Northern Commander [1989] IsrSC 42(4) 708
42. HCJ 448/85 Dahar v. Peretz [1986] IsrSC 40(2) 401.
43. See HCJ 47/82 Progressive Judaism Movement Fund v. The Minister of Religions [1989] IsrSC 43(2) 661
44. CA 450/70 Rogosinsky v. The State of Israel [1971] IsrSC 26(1) 129
45. HCJ 5432/03 SHIN for Equal Representation of Women v. The Board for Cable and Satellite Broadcasting [2004] IsrSC 58(3) 65
46. HCJ 721/94 EL-AL Israel Airlines v. Danielowitz [1994] IsrSC 48(5) 749
47. HCJ 4541/94 Miller v. The Minister of Defense [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 94.
48. See Ze'ev Segal, Standing Before the Supreme Court Sitting as a High Court of Justice (2nd ed. 1993) [in Hebrew].
49. See HCJ 852/96 Alony v. The Minister of Justice [1987] IsrSC 41 (2) 1
50. HCJ 3267/97 Rubinstein v. The Minister of Defense [2000] IsrSC 52(5) 481.
51. See HCJ 448/81 Ressler v. The Minister of Defense [1981] IsrSC 36(1) 81
52. CA 6991/95 Plonit v. The State Attorney [1996] IsrSC 49(4) 210
53. HCJ 2915/96 Heykind v. The State Attorney [1996] IsrSC 50(1) 818.
54. See HCJ 606/78 Iyub v. The Minister of Defense [1978] IsrSC 33(2) 113
55. Duikat v. The Government of Israel, IsrSC.
56. See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, IsrSC.
57. See HCJ 5578/02 Manor v. The Minister of Finance [2004] IsrSC 59(1) 729
58. HCJ 4806/94 De.Sh.E. Quality of Environment Ltd. v. The Minister of Finance [1998] IsrSC 52(2) 193
59. CFH 1333/02 Local Committee of Planning and Building v. Horowitz [12.05.2004] (not yet published)
60. HCJ 3434/96 Hofnong v. The Chairman of the Knesset [1996] IsrSC 50(3) 57
61. HCJ 4769/95 Ron v. The Minister of Transportation [2002] IsrSC 57(1) 235.
62. See Sec 8 of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty 1391 LSI 150 (1992) (Isr.)
63. See also Sec. 4 of the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation 1454 LSI 90 (1994) (Isr.).
64. See Sec. 11 of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, id.
65. See also Sec. 5 of the Basic Law. Freedom of Occupation, id.
66. The Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, id. sec. 10.
67. See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, The Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, at 294
68. Philip A. Joseph, Constitutional and Administrative Law in New Zealand 861 (1993).
69. See The Human Rights Act, 1998, § 3 (Eng.).
70. Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982 (Charter of Rights and Freedoms, § 52(1)) (Can.).
71. Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803).
72. See The Basic Law: The Knesset 244 LSI 69 (1958) (Isr.)
73. The Basic Law: Israel Lands 312 LSI 56 (1960) (Isr.)
74. The Basic Law: The President of the State 428 LSI 118 (1964) (Isr.)
75. The Basic Law: The Government 1780 LSI 158 (2001) (Isr.)
76. The Basic Law: The State Economy 777 LSI 207 (1975) (Isr.)
77. The Basic Law: The Military 806 LSI 154 (1976) (Isr.)
78. The Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel 980 LSI 186 (1980) (Isr.)
79. The Basic Law: The Judiciary 1110 LSI I 78 (1984)(Isr.)
80. The Basic Law: The State Comptroller 1237 LSI 30 (1988) (Isr.).
81. See HCJ 98/69 Bergman v. The Minister of Finance [1969] IsrSC 23(1) 963, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/69/980/000/z01/69000980. z01.htm (last visited June 4, 2006)
82. HCJ 148/73 Keniel v. The Minister of Justice [1973] IsrSC 23(1) 794
83. HCJ 179/82 Ressler v. The Minister of Defense [1983] IsrSC 36(4) 421.
84. See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, IsrSC.
85. See Tzemach v. The Minister of Defense, IsrSC
86. HCJ 1030/99 Oron v. The Chairman of the Knesset [2002] IsrSC 56(3) 640
87. HCJ 1661/05 The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset [09.06.2005] (not yet published). This new approach has been applied also in regard to the entire corpus of Basic Laws.
88. See HCJ 212/03 Herut v. The Chairman of the Central Elections Committee [2003] IsrSC 57(1) 750 English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/03/120/002/a04/03002120. a04.HTM (last visited June 4, 2006)
89. HCJ 344/81 Negbi v. Central Elections Committee [1981] IsrSC 35(4) 837
90. HCJ 637/88 La'or Movement v. The Chairman of the Central Elections Committee for the Knesset [1988] IsrSC 42(3) 495
91. HCJ 2208/02 Salame v. The Minister of the Interior [2002] IsrSC 56(5) 590.
92. See The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset, id.
93. See Aharon Barak, The Constitutional Revolution—12th Anniversary, 1 L. & Bus. 3 (2004) [in Hebrew]
94. See Aharon Barak, The Constitutionalization of the Israeli Legal System as Result of the Basic Laws and its Effect on Procedural and Substantive Criminal Law, 31 Isr. L. Rev. 3 (1997).
95. See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, Isr. L. Rev at 457–458
96. R. v. Oakes [1986] 1 SCR 103.
97. See CA 537/95 Ganimat v. The State of Israel [1995] IsrSC 49(3) 355
98. CFH 2316/95 Ganimat v. The State of Israel [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 589
99. HCJ 1384/98 Avni v. The Prime Minister [1998] IsrSC 52(5) 206.
100. See Aharon Barak, 3 Interpretation in Law 435 (1994) [in Hebrew]
101. Barak, Interpretation in Law.
102. See Human Rights in Private Law (Daniel Friedmann & Daphna Barak-Erez eds., 2001)
103. Miguel Deutch, Unfair Competition and the “Misappropriation Doctrine”—A Renewed Analysis, 48 St. Louis L.J. 503, and references therein.
104. See, e.g., a speech made by the chairman of the Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Mr. Michael Eitan, on the sitting of 17/7/2002, protocol no. 509.
105. See Private Bill 687, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 19.5.2003 by MK Eliezer Cohen
106. Private Bill 3393 Constitution Court—2002, 4.2.2003, by MK Eliezer Cohen
107. Private Bill 3380, Constitution Court—2002, 28.2.2002 by MK Yigal Bibi
108. Private Bill 1875, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 12.6.2000 by MK Eliezer Cohen
109. Private Bill 994, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 23.6.2003 by MK Amnon Cohen.
110. See Private Bill 1341, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment-judges' appointment to the Supreme Court), 31.7.2003 by MK David Tal
111. Private Bill 1224, The Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—appointment process), 21.7.2003 by MK Rony Bar-On
112. Private Bill 980, The Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—panel of Supreme Court's judges appointment committee), 23.6.2003 by MK Nisan Slominsky
113. Private Bill 1341, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—panel members of Supreme Court's judges appointment committee), 9.6.2003 by MK Yuli Tamir
114. Private Bill 2574, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—judges' appointment committee), 5.3.2001 by MK Yigal Bibi.
115. See Basic Law: The Judiciary, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—judges' appointment committee), at Sec. 4(2).
116. See Peter W. Hogg, Interpreting the Charter of Rights: Generosity and Justification, 28 Osgoode Hall L.J. 817(1990).
117. See Judith Karpe, Basic Law: Dignity and Liberty—Biography of Power Struggles, 1 L. & Gov't 232 (1993) [in Hebrew].
118. See PPA 4463/94 Golan v. The Prison Services [1996] IsrSC 52(5) 826
119. CA 105-92
120. HCJ 205/94 Nof v. The Minister of Defense [1997] IsrSC 50(5) 449 English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/94/050/002/z01/94002050.z01.htm (last visited June 4, 2006)
121. EL-AL Israel Airlines v. Danielowitz, IsrSC
122. Miller v. The Minister of Defense, IsrSC
123. See HCJ 7015/02 Ajuri v. The IDF Commander [2002] IsrSC 56(6) 352, English translation, available at http://elyonl. court.gov.il/files_eng/02/150/070/al5/02070150.al5.HTM (last visited June 4, 2006)
124. HCJ 2006/97 Janimat v. The Central Commander [1997] IsrSC 51(2) 651
125. CA 4920/02 Federman v. The State of Israel [20.06.2002] (unpublished)
126. CFH 7048/97 A v. The Minister of Defense [2000] IsrSC 54(1) 721.
127. See IsrSC.
128. See Golan v. The Prison Services, IsrSC
129. CA 105/92 Re'em Engineer Contractors v. Nazareth-Ilit Municipality [1993] IsrSC 57(5) 19.
130. See HCJ 2599/00 Yated v. The Ministry of Education [2002] IsrSC 56(5) 834
131. HCJ 7715, 1554/95 Shoharie Gilat v. The Minister of Education and Culture [1996] IsrSC 50(3) 2
132. Aharon Barak, Forward, in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Israel (Y. Rabin & Y. Shany, eds., 2005 [in Hebrew]
133. HCJ 366/03 Commitment to Peace and Social Justice Movement v. The Minister of Finance [12.12.2005] (not yet published).
134. See Manor v. The Minister of Finance HCJ
135. LTA 4905/98 Gamzu v. Yeshayahu [2001] IsrSC 55(3)360.
136. For this differentiation see Barak, IsrSC, at 361–364.
137. See Dieter Grimm, The Protective Function of The State, in European And US Constitutionalism 137 (Georg Nolte ed., 2005).
138. See HCJ 2056/04 Beit Sourik Village Council v. The Government of Israel [2004] IsrSC 58(5) 807, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/04/560/020/a28/04020560.a28.htm (last visited June 4, 2006)
139. HCJ 1715/97 Investment Managers' Chambers v. The Minister of Finance [1997] IsrSC 51(4) 367
140. Dahlia Dorner, Proportionalism, in Berenson Book 281 (2000) [in Hebrew].
141. See, e.g., David Kretzmer, The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories 61–160 (2002).
142. See Aharon Barak, The Role of a Supreme Court in a Democracy, and the Fight Against Terrorism, 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 125, 130 (2003).
143. On “black holes,” see Johan Steyn, Guantanamo Bay: The Legal Black Hole, in Democracy Through Law 195 (J. Steyn ed., 2004).
144. See HCJ 7957/04 Mara'abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel [2004] (not yet published)
145. Ajuri v. The IDF Commander, HCJ
146. HCJ 3239/02 Marab v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank [2003] IsrSC 57(2) 349, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/02/390/032/a04/02032390.a04.htm (last visited June 4, 2006)
147. HCJ 3451/02, Almadani v. The IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria [2002] IsrSC 56(3) 30,36, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng /02/510/034/a06/02034510.a06.htm (last visited, June 4, 2006)
148. HCJ 3278/02 Center for Defense of the Individual v. The IDF Commander, [2002] IsrSC 57(1) 385, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/02/780/032/a06/02032780. a06.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).
149. See HCJ 3114/02 Barakeh v. The Minister of Defense [2002] IsrSC 56(3) 11, 16, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/02/140/031/a02/02031140. a02.htm (last visited June 4, 2006))
150. Almadani v. IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, id. at 60, 36.
151. See HCJ 1005/89 Aga v. The Commander of IDF forces in Gaza [1990] IsrSC 44(1) 536
152. HCJ 4764/04 Doctors for Human Rights v. Commander of IDF forces in Gaza [2004] IsrSC 58(5) 398, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il /files_eng/04/640/047/a03/04047640.a03.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).
153. See HCJ 3799/02 Adala v. The Central Commander [22.05.2002] (published)
154. Ajuri v. The IDF Commander, HCJ
155. Almadani v. IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, HCJ, at 30, 34–35.
156. See The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset, HCJ.
157. See HCJ 769/02 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel [2003] IsrSC 57(6) 285.
158. See Mara ‘abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel, IsrSC.
159. See International Court of Justice, July 9, 2004 Legal Consequences Of The Construction Of A Wall In The Occupied Palestinian Territory (Adv. Op., 9.7.04), 43 IL M 1009 (2004).
160. For further inquiry on the subject, see 99 Am. J. Int'L. L.
161. 38 (1–2) Isr. L. Rev. (2004) special issues devoted to the decision of the ICJ in The Hague and the High Court of Justice in Israel on the Separation Barrier.
162. See Mara'abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel, Isr. L. Rev, at para. 17.
163. See HCJ 316/03 Muhammad Bakri v. The Israel Film Council [2003] IsrSC 58(1) 249, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/03/160/003/115/03003160.115.htm) (last visited June 4, 2006)
164. HCJ 651/03 Association for Civil Rights in Israel v. The Chairman of the Elections for the Sixteenth Knesset [2003] IsrSC 57(2) 62, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il /files_eng/03/510/006/r02/03006510.r02.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).
165. See Barak, IsrSC, at 16.
166. See Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 245 (1944).
167. See Liversidge v. Anderson, 3 All E.R. 338, 361 (1941).
168. See Andras Sajo, Militant Democracy (2004).
169. See Cicero, Pro Milone 16 (N.H. Watts trans., Harvard Univ. Press, 5th ed. 1972).
170. But cf. William. H. Rehnquist, All the Laws But One: Civil Liberties in Wartime 224 (1998) (arguing that Cicero's approach reflects reality).
171. See Abbasi v. Sec ‘y of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2002) EWCA Civ 1958: “[W]e do not find it possible to approach this claim for judicial review other than on the basis that, in apparent contravention of fundamental principles recognized by both jurisdictions and by international law, Mr. Abbasi is at present arbitrarily detained in a ‘legal black-hole.’” (Lord Phillips M.R.)
172. See Harold Hongju Koh, The Spirit of the Laws, 43 Harv. Int'l L.J. 23 (2002): In the days since, I have been struck by how many Americans—and how many lawyers— seem to have concluded that, somehow, the destruction of four planes and three buildings has taken us back to a state of nature in which there are no laws or rules. In fact, over the years, we have developed an elaborate system of domestic and international laws, institutions, regimes, and decision-making procedures precisely so that they will be consulted and obeyed, not ignored, at a time like this.
173. See HCJ 168/91 Morcos v. Minister of Defense [1991] IsrSC 45(1) 467, 470–71.
174. See HCJ 320/80 Kwasama v. The Minister of Defense [1980] IsrSC 5(3) 113, 132.
175. See Almadani v. The IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, IsrSC.
176. See HCJ 5100/94 Pubic Committee Against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel [1999] IsrSC 53(4) 817, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov. il/files_eng/94/000/051/a09/94051000.a09.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).
177. Id. at 845.
178. See Aharon Barak, Judicial Discretion (1987)
179. Maria I. Vila, Facing Judicial Discretion: Legal Knowledge and Right Answers Revisited (2001).
180. See Barak, Facing Judicial Discretion: Legal Knowledge and Right Answers Revisited.
181. See generally Mauro Cappelletti, Judicial Review in the Contemporary World 45 (1971)
182. Constitutionalism and Democracy: Transitions in the Contemporary World (Douglas Greenberg, Stanley N. Katz, Melanie Beth Oliviero, & Steven C. Wheatley eds., 1993)
183. The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (C. Neal Tate & Torbjorn Vallinder eds., 1995)
184. Marina Angel, Constitutional Judicial Review of Legislation: A Comparative Law Symposium, 56 Temp. L. Q. 287 (1983).
185. See HCJ 5364/94 Velner v. The Chairman of the Israeli Labor Party [1995] IsrSC 49(1) 78, 808.
186. See Michael Kirby, Australian Law—After 11 September 2001, 21 Austl. B. Rev. 21 (2001)
187. Sir Anthony Mason, A Bill of Rights for Australia?, 5 Austl. B. Rev. 79, 80 (1989)
188. Beverley McLachlin, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy 13–15 (2001) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Harvard Law School Library).
189. See The Global Expansion of Judicial Power, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy, at 1–5.
190. See Barak, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy, at 62–115.
191. See Barak, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy.
192. On Balancing, see Barak, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy, at 93.
193. See Robert Alexy, A Theory of Constitutional Rights (Julian Rivers trans., 2002).
194. On the distinction between balancing and categorization, see Kathleen M. Sullivan, Post-Liberal Judging: The Role of Categorization and Balancing, 63 U. Colo. L. Rev. 293(1992).
195. See U. Colo. L. Rev 14–17.
196. See U. Colo. L. Rev.
197. See Article 38 of The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996.
198. See Jamie Cassels, Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation in India: Attempting the Impossible, 37 Am. J. Comp. L. 495 (1989).