Four not six: Revealing culturally common facial expressions of emotion

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

Volumn 145, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 708-730

  Jack, Rachael E ^a   Sun, Wei ^a   Delis, Ioannis ^a,b   Garrod, Oliver G B ^a   Schyns, Philippe G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

^b Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences   (United States)

Author keywords

Communication; Culture; Emotion; Facial expressions; Psychophysics

Indexed keywords

ADULT; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; CULTURAL FACTOR; EMOTION; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; MALE; PHYSIOLOGY; YOUNG ADULT;

ADULT; CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON; CULTURE; EMOTIONS; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; MALE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84962832655     PISSN: 00963445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/xge0000162     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (1995). Fear and the human amygdala. The Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 5879-5891.
2. Ahumada, A., & Lovell, J. (1971). Stimulus features in signal detection. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 49, 1751-1756. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.1912577
3. Allport, G. W., & Odbert, H. S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study. Psychological Monographs, 47, i-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ h0093360
4. Andrew, R. J. (1963, November 22). Evolution of facial expression. Science, 142, 1034-1041. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.142.3595 .1034
5. Averill, J. R. (1983). Studies on anger and aggression. Implications for theories of emotion. American Psychologist, 38, 1145-1160. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.38.11.1145
6. Bavelas, J. B., Coates, L., & Johnson, T. (2000). Listeners as co-narrators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 941-952. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.941
7. Bedford, O. A. (2004). The individual experience of guilt and shame in Chinese culture. Culture and Psychology, 10, 29-52. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/1354067X04040929
8. Belin, P., Fillion-Bilodeau, S., & Gosselin, F. (2008). The Montreal Affective Voices: A validated set of nonverbal affect bursts for research on auditory affective processing. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 531-539. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.2.531
9. Biehl, M., Matsumoto, D., Ekman, P., Hearn, V., Heider, K., Kudoh, T., & Ton, V. (1997). Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE): Reliability data and cross-national differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 3-21. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1023/A:1024902500935
10. Cai, Q., & Brysbaert, M. (2010). SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese word and character frequencies based on film subtitles. PLoS ONE, 5 (6), e10729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010729
11. Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s15327906mbr0102_10
12. Chan, D. W. (1985). Perception and judgment of facial expressions among the Chinese. International Journal of Psychology, 20, 681-692. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207598508247563
13. Chapman, H. A., Kim, D. A., Susskind, J. M., & Anderson, A. K. (2009, February 27). In bad taste: Evidence for the oral origins of moral disgust. Science, 323, 1222-1226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1165565
14. Chen, C., Garrod, O., Schyns, P., & Jack, R. (2015). The Face is the Mirror of the Cultural Mind. Journal of Vision, 15, 928. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1167/15.12.928
15. Cordaro, D. T., Keltner, D., Tshering, S., Wangchuk, D., & Flynn, L. M., (2016). The voice conveys emotion in ten globalized cultures and one remote village in Bhutan. Emotion, 16, 117-128. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/emo0000100
16. Cott, H. B. (1940). Adaptive coloration in animals. London, England: Methuen.
17. Cunningham, D. W., Kleiner, M., Bülthoff, H. H., & Wallraven, C. (2004, August). The components of conversational facial expressions. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the First Symposium on Applied Perception in Graphics and Visualization, Los Angeles, CA.
18. Darwin, C. (1999). The expression of the emotions in man and animals (3rd ed.). London, England: Fontana Press. (Original work published 1872).
19. Davitz, J. R. (1969). The language of emotion. London, England: Academic press.
20. de Gelder, B. (2009). Why bodies? Twelve reasons for including bodily expressions in affective neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences, 364B, 3475-3484. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0190
21. De Leersnyder, J., Mesquita, B., & Kim, H. S. (2011). Where do my emotions belong? A study of immigrants' emotional acculturation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 451-463. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0146167211399103
22. de Rivera, J. (1977). A structural theory of the emotions. Psychological Issues, 10, 771.
23. Dolan, R. J., & Dayan, P. (2013). Goals and habits in the brain. Neuron, 80, 312-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.09.007
24. Dotsch, R., Wigboldus, D. H., Langner, O., & van Knippenberg, A. (2008). Ethnic out-group faces are biased in the prejudiced mind. Psychological Science, 19, 978 -980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008 .02186.x
25. Duchaine, B. C., & Nakayama, K. (2006). Developmental prosopagnosia: A window to content-specific face processing. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16, 166-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.03 .003
26. Dukas, R. (1998). Cognitive ecology: The evolutionary ecology of information processing and decision making. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
27. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993). Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 681-693.
28. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Brain, 9, 10.
29. Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In J. R. Cole (Ed.) Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1971 (Vol. 19, pp. 207-283). Lincoln, NE: Nebraska University Press.
30. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1976). Measuring facial movement. Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior, 1, 56-75.
31. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
32. Ekman, P., Friesen, W., & Hagar, J. C. (Eds.). (1978). Facial Action Coding System investigators guide. Salt Lake City, UT: Research Nexus.
33. Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O'Sullivan, M., Chan, A., Diacoyanni- Tarlatzis, I., Heider, K., . . . Tzavaras, A. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 712-717. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.53.4.712
34. Ekman, P., Sorenson, E. R., & Friesen, W. V. (1969, April 4). Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion. Science, 164, 86-88. http://dx .doi.org/10.1126/science.164.3875.86
35. Elfenbein, H. A. (2013). Nonverbal dialects and accents in facial expressions of emotion. Emotion Review, 5, 90-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073912451332
36. Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002a). Is there an in-group advantage in emotion recognition? Psychological Bulletin, 128, 243-249. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.243
37. Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002b). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 203-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.203
38. Elfenbein, H. A., Beaupre, M., Levesque, M., & Hess, U. (2007). Toward a dialect theory: Cultural differences in the expression and recognition of posed facial expressions. Emotion, 7, 131-146. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/1528-3542.7.1.131
39. Fay, N., Garrod, S., Roberts, L., & Swoboda, N. (2010). The interactive evolution of human communication systems. Cognitive Science, 34, 351-386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01090.x
40. Fontaine, J. R., Scherer, K. R., Roesch, E. B., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2007). The world of emotions is not two-dimensional. Psychological Science, 18, 1050-1057. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02024.x
41. Gamer, M., Schmitz, A. K., Tittgemeyer, M., & Schilbach, L. (2013). The human amygdala drives reflexive orienting towards facial features. Current Biology, 23, 917-918.
42. Gill, D., Garrod, O. G., Jack, R. E., & Schyns, P. G. (2014). Facial movements strategically camouflage involuntary social signals of face morphology. Psychological Science, 25, 1079-1086. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0956797614522274
43. Gosselin, F., & Schyns, P. G. (2003). Superstitious perceptions reveal properties of internal representations. Psychological Science, 14, 505- 509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.03452
44. Guilford, T., & Dawkins, M. S. (1991). Receiver psychology and the evolution of animal signals. Animal Behaviour, 42, 1-14. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80600-1
45. Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
46. Hasson, O. (1997). Towards a general theory of biological signaling. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 185, 139-156. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1006/jtbi.1996.0258
47. Hebets, E. A., & Papaj, D. R. (2005). Complex signal function: Developing a framework of testable hypotheses. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 57, 197-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-004-0865-7
48. Henrich, J., Heine, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-83.
49. Ho, D. Y.-F., Fu, W., & Ng, S. M. (2004). Guilt, shame, and embarrassment: Revelations of face and self. Culture and Psychology, 10, 64-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354067X04044166
50. Ibrahimagić-Šeper, L.,Čelebić, A., Petričević, N., & Selimović, E. (2006). Anthropometric differences between males and females in face dimensions and dimensions of central maxillary incisors. Medicinski Glasnik, 3, 58-62.
51. Izard, C. E. (1971). The face of emotion. New York, NY: Appleton- Century-Crofts.
52. Izard, C. E. (1994). Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 288-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.288
53. Jack, R. E., Blais, C., Scheepers, C., Schyns, P. G., & Caldara, R. (2009). Cultural confusions show that facial expressions are not universal. Current Biology, 19, 1543-1548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009 .07.051
54. Jack, R. E., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Internal representations reveal cultural diversity in expectations of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 14, 19-25.
55. Jack, R. E., Garrod, O. G., & Schyns, P. G. (2014). Dynamic facial expressions of emotion transmit an evolving hierarchy of signals over time. Current Biology, 24, 187-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub .2013.11.064
56. Jack, R. E., Garrod, O. G., Yu, H., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 7241-7244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200155109
57. Jack, R. E., & Schyns, P. G. (2015). The human face as a dynamic tool for social communication. Current Biology, 25, 621-634. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.052
58. Jack, R. E. (2013). Culture and facial expressions of emotion. Visual Cognition, 1248 -1286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2013 .835367
59. Jenssen, T. A. (1977). Evolution of anoline lizard display behavior. American Zoologist, 17, 203-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/17.1.203
60. Jenssen, T. A. (1979). Display modifiers of Anolis opalinus (Lacertilia: Iguanidae). Herpetologica, 35, 21-30.
61. Kobayashi, H., & Kohshima, S. (1997, June 19). Unique morphology of the human eye [Letter]. Nature, 387, 767-768. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ 42842
62. Kontsevich, L. L., & Tyler, C. W. (2004). What makes Mona Lisa smile? Vision Research, 44, 1493-1498. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2003 .11.027
63. Krumhuber, E., & Kappas, A. (2005). Moving smiles: The role of dynamic components for the perception of the genuineness of smiles. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29, 3-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10919-004- 0887-x
64. Krumhuber, E. G., Kappas, A., & Manstead, A., Sr. (2013). Effects of dynamic aspects of facial expressions: A review. Emotion Review, 5, 41-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073912451349
65. Labarre, W. (1947). The cultural basis of emotions and gestures. Journal of Personality, 16, 49.
66. Ladd, D. R., Dediu, D., & Kinsella, A. R. (2008). Languages and genes: Reflections on biolinguistics and the nature-nurture question. Biolinguistics, 2, 114-126.
67. LeDoux, J. E. (2015). Feelings: What are they and how does the brain make them? Daedalus, 144, 96 -111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/ DAED_a_00319
68. Lee, D. D., & Seung, H. S. (1999, October 21). Learning the parts of objects by non-negative matrix factorization. Nature, 401, 788-791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/44565
69. Li, J., Wang, L. Q., & Fischer, K. W. (2004). The organisation of Chinese shame concepts? Cognition and Emotion, 18, 767-797. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/02699930341000202
70. Lindquist, K. A., & Gendron, M. (2013). What's in a word? Language constructs emotion perception. Emotion Review, 5, 66-71. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/1754073912451351
71. Macmillan, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (2004). Detection theory: A user's guide. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
72. Magga, O. H. (2006). Diversity in Saami terminology for reindeer, snow, and ice. International Social Science Journal, 58, 25-34. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1468-2451.2006.00594.x
73. Marsh, A. A., Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2003). Nonverbal "accents": Cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Psychological Science, 14, 373-376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280 .24461
74. Marsh, A. A., Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2007). Separated by a common language nonverbal accents and cultural stereotypes about Americans and Australians. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 284-301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022107300275
75. Matsumoto, D. (1992). American-Japanese cultural differences in the recognition of universal facial expressions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 72-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022192231005
76. Matsumoto, D. (2002). Methodological requirements to test a possible in-group advantage in judging emotions across cultures: Comment on Elfenbein and Ambady (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 236-242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.236
77. Matsumoto, D., & Ekman, P. (1989). American-Japanese cultural differences in intensity ratings of facial expressions of emotion. Motivation and Emotion, 13, 143-157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00992959
78. Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Fontaine, J. (2008). Mapping expressive differences around the world the relationship between emotional display rules and individualism versus collectivism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 55-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022107311854
79. Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 179 -204. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0033-2909.112.2.179
80. Moriguchi, Y., Ohnishi, T., Kawachi, T., Mori, T., Hirakata, M., Yamada, M., . . . Komaki, G. (2005). Specific brain activation in Japanese and Caucasian people to fearful faces. NeuroReport, 16, 133-136.
81. Morris, D. (1979). Gestures, their origins and distribution. New York, NY: Stein & Day Pub.
82. Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., & Dolan, R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383, 812-815. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/383812a0
83. Niedenthal, P. M., Mermillod, M., Maringer, M., & Hess, U. (2010). The Simulation of Smiles (SIMS) model: Embodied simulation and the meaning of facial expression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 417- 433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X10000865
84. Nisbett, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2003). Culture and point of view. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 11163-11170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas .19345271001934527100
85. Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review, 97, 315-331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033- 295X.97.3.315
86. Parrott, W. G. (2001). Emotions in social psychology: Essential readings. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
87. Pavan, M., & Pelillo, M. (2007). Dominant sets and pairwise clustering. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 29, 167-172.
88. Pessoa, L., & Adolphs, R. (2011). Emotion and the brain: Multiple roads are better than one. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12, 425-426. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2920-c2
89. Phillips, M. L., Young, A. W., Senior, C., Brammer, M., Andrew, C., Calder, A. J., . . . David, A. S. (1997, October 2). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. Nature, 389, 495-498. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/39051
90. Plutchik, R., & Kellerman, H. (Eds.). (1980). Emotion: Theory, research and experience. Vol. 1, Theories of emotion. Academic Press.
91. Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161-1178.
92. Russell, J. A. (1994). Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 102-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102
93. Sapir, E. (1929). The status of linguistics as a science. Language, 5, 207-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/409588
94. Sauter, D. A., Eisner, F., Ekman, P., & Scott, S. K. (2010). Cross-cultural recognition of basic emotions through nonverbal emotional vocalizations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 2408 -2412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas .0908239106
95. Scheiner, E., & Fischer, J. (2011). Emotion expression: The evolutionary heritage in the human voice. In W. Welsch, W. J. Singer, & A. Wunder (Eds.), Interdisciplinary anthropology (pp. 105-129). New York, NY: Springer.
96. Scherer, K. R. (1999). Appraisal theory. In T. Dagleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 637-663). Chichester, England: Wiley.
97. Schyns, P. G., Goldstone, R. L., & Thibaut, J. P. (1998). The development of features in object concepts. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 1-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X98000107
98. Schyns, P. G., Petro, L. S., & Smith, M. L. (2007). Dynamics of visual information integration in the brain for categorizing facial expressions. Current Biology, 17, 1580-1585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007 .08.048
99. Schyns, P. G., & Rodet, L. (1997). Categorization creates functional features. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 681-696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.23.3.681
100. Scott-Phillips, T. C. (2008). Defining biological communication. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 21, 387-395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1420- 9101.2007.01497.x
101. Senju, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2010). Is eye contact the key to the social brain? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 458-459. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1017/S0140525X10001275
102. Shannon, C. E. (2001). A mathematical theory of communication. ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review, 5, 3-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/584091.584093
103. Shariff, A. F., & Tracy, J. L. (2011). What are emotion expressions for? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 395-399. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/0963721411424739
104. Slabbekoorn, H., & den Boer-Visser, A. (2006). Cities change the songs of birds. Current Biology, 16, 2326-2331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub .2006.10.008
105. Slater, P. J. B., & Halliday, T. R. (1994). Behaviour and evolution, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
106. Smith, F. W., & Schyns, P. G. (2009). Smile through your fear and sadness: Transmitting and identifying facial expression signals over a range of viewing distances. Psychological Science, 20, 1202-1208. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02427.x
107. Smith, M. J., & Harper, D. G. C. (1995). Animal signals: Models and terminology. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 177, 305-311. http://dx.doi .org/10.1006/jtbi.1995.0248
108. Susskind, J. M., Lee, D. H., Cusi, A., Feiman, R., Grabski, W., & Anderson, A. K. (2008). Expressing fear enhances sensory acquisition. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 843-850. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2138
109. Tanaka, J. W., & Taylor, M. (1991). Object categories and expertise: Is the basic level in the eye of the beholder? Cognitive Psychology, 23, 457-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(91)90016-H
110. Tomkins, S. S. (1962). Affect, imagery, and consciousness: Vol. 1. The positive emotions. New York, NY: Springer.
111. Tomkins, S. S. (1963). Affect, imagery, and consciousness: Vol. 2. The negative emotions. New York, NY: Springer.
112. Tomkins, S. S., & McCarter, R. (1964). What and where are the primary affects? Some evidence for a theory. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 18, 119-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1964.18.1.119
113. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Show your pride: Evidence for a discrete emotion expression. Psychological Science, 15, 194-197. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503008.x
114. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2008). The nonverbal expression of pride: Evidence for cross-cultural recognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 516-530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514 .94.3.516
115. Turnbull, J. (1813). A voyage round the world in the years 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, and 1804 in which the author visited the principle islands in the Pacific Ocean and the English settlements of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (Vol. 2). London, England: Phillips.
116. van der Schalk, J., Hawk, S. T., Fischer, A. H., & Doosje, B. (2011). Moving faces, looking places: Validation of the Amsterdam Dynamic Facial Expression Set (ADFES). Emotion, 11, 907-920. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/a0023853
117. Warriner, A., Kuperman, V., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1191-1207. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x
118. Whalen, P. J., Kagan, J., Cook, R. G., Davis, F. C., Kim, H., Polis, S., . . . Johnstone, T. (2004). Human amygdala responsivity to masked fearful eye whites. Science, 306, 2061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science .1103617
119. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Science and linguistics. Thinking, 6, 207-219.
120. Wilson, E. O. (2012). The social conquest of earth. New York, NY: Norton.
121. Yu, H., Garrod, O. G. B., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Perception-driven facial expression synthesis. Computers & Graphics, 36, 152-162. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.cag.2011.12.002