Risk environments, race/ethnicity, and HIV status in a large sample of people who inject drugs in the United States

PLoS ONE

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 2016, Pages

  Cooper, Hannah L F ^a   Linton, Sabriya ^a   Kelley, Mary E ^a   Ross, Zev ^b   Wolfe, Mary E ^a   Chen, Yen Tyng ^a   Zlotorzynska, Maria ^a   Hunter Jones, Josalin ^a   Friedman, Samuel R ^c   Des Jarlais, Don C ^d   Tempalski, Barbara ^c   DiNenno, Elizabeth ^e   Broz, Dita ^e   Wejnert, Cyprian ^e   Paz Bailey, Gabriela ^e   Taussig, Jennifer ^f   Johnson, Shacara ^f   Todd, Jeff ^f   Flynn, Colin ^f   German, Danielle ^f   Isenberg, Debbie ^f   Driscoll, Maura ^f   Hurwitz, Elizabeth ^f   Prachand, Nikhil ^f   Benbow, Nanette ^f   Melville, Sharon ^f   Yeager, Richard ^f   Dyer, Jim ^f   Novoa, Alicia ^f   Thrun, Mark ^f   Al Tayyib, Alia ^f   Higgins, Emily ^f   Mokotoff, Eve ^f   Griffin, Vivian ^f   Sayegh, Aaron ^f   Risser, Jan ^f   Rehman, Hafeez ^f   Bingham, Trista ^f   Sey, Ekow Kwa ^f   Metsch, Lisa ^f   Forrest, David ^f   Beck, Dano ^f   Cardenas, Gabriel ^f   Nemeth, Chris ^g   Smith, Lou ^g   Watson, Carol Ann ^g   Robinson, William T ^f   Gruber, DeAnn ^f   Barak, Narquis ^f   Neaigus, Alan ^f   Jenness, Samuel ^f   Wendel, Travis ^f   Gelpi Acosta, Camila ^f   Hagan, Holly ^f   Godette, Henry ^f   Bolden, Barbara ^f   D'Errico, Sally ^f   Brady, Kathleen A ^f   Kirkland, Althea ^f   Shpaner, Mark ^f   Miguelino Keasling, Vanessa ^f   Velasco, Al ^f   Raymond, H Fisher ^f   De León, Sandra Miranda ^h   Rolón Colón, Yadira ^h   Courogen, Maria ^f   Thiede, Hanne ^f   Burt, Richard ^f   Herbert, Michael ^f   Friedberg, Yelena ^f   Wrigley, Dale ^f   Fisher, Jacob ^f   Sansone, Marie ^f   West Ojo, Tiffany ^f   Magnus, Manya ^f   Kuo, Irene ^f   more..

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b ZEVROSS SPATIAL ANALYSIS   (United States)

^c NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH INSTITUTES   (United States)

^d BETH ISRAEL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^e CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^f NONE   (United States)

^g Nassau Suffolk   (United States)

^h Hospital Municipal de San Juan   (Puerto Rico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGED; ARTICLE; BLACK PERSON; CONTROLLED STUDY; CRIMINAL JUSTICE; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; FEMALE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HISPANIC; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; MALE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIAL ISOLATION; UNITED STATES; ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICAN AMERICAN; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG DEPENDENCE; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; MULTICENTER STUDY; RISK FACTOR;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICAN AMERICANS; FEMALE; HISPANIC AMERICANS; HUMANS; MALE; RISK FACTORS; RISK-TAKING; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84961669721     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150410     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Lansky A, Finlayson T, Johnson C, Holtzman D, Wejnert C, et al (2014) Estimating the number of persons who inject drugs in the united states by meta-analysis to calculate national rates of HIV and hepatitis C virus infections. PLoS ONE [Electronic Resource] 9: e97596. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097596 PMID: 24840662
2. Tempalski B, Lieb S, Cleland CM, Cooper H, Brady JE, et al (2009) HIV prevalence rates among injection drug users in 96 large US metropolitan areas, 1992-2002. Journal of Urban Health 86:132-154. doi: 10.1007/s11524-008-9328-1 PMID: 19015995
3. The White House Office of National AIDS Policy (2010) National HIV/AIDS Strategy. Washington, DC: The White House Office of National AIDS Policy.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011) Strategic Plan: The Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention 2011 through 2015. Atlanta, GA: CDC.
5. Friedman S, Cooper H, Tempalski B, Keem M, Friedman R, et al (2006) Relationships of deterrence and law enforcement to drug-related harms among drug injectors in US metropolitan areas. AIDS 20: 93-99. PMID: 16327324
6. Cooper H, Des Jarlais DC, Tempalski B, Bossak B, Ross Z, et al (2012) Drug-related arrest rates and spatial access to syringe exchange programs in New York City health districts: Combined effects on the risk of injection-related infections among injectors. Health and Place 18: 218-228. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.09.005 PMID: 22047790
7. Cooper H, Moore L, Gruskin S, Krieger N. (2005) The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors'ability to practice harm reduction: a qualitative study. Social Science & Medicine 61: 673-684.
8. Nandi A, Glass TA, Cole SR, Chu H, Galea S, et al (2010) Neighborhood poverty and injection cessation in a sample of injection drug users. American Journal of Epidemiology 171: 391-398. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwp416 PMID: 20093307
9. Genberg BL, Gange SJ, Go VF, Celentano DD, Kirk GD, et al (2011) The effect of neighborhood deprivation and residential relocation on long-term injection cessation among injection drug users (IDUs) in Baltimore, Maryland. Addiction 106:1966-1974. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03501.x PMID: 21592251
10. Latkin C, Williams CT, Wang J, Curry A.D. (2005) Neighborhood Social disorder as a determinant of drug injection behaviors: a structural equation modelling approach. Health Psychology 24: 96-100. PMID: 15631567
11. Latkin CA, Curry AD, Hua W, Davey M.A. (2007) Direct and indirect associations of neighborhood disorder with drug use and high-risk sexual partners. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32: S234-S241. PMID: 17543716
12. Cooper H, Des Jarlais D, Ross Z, Tempalski B, Bossak B, et al (2011) Spatial access to syringe exchange programs and pharmacies selling over-the-counter syringes predicts drug injectors' use of sterile syringes. American Journal of Public Health 101:1118-1125. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.184580 PMID: 21088267
13. Williams C, Metzger D. (2010) Race and distance effects on regular syringe exchange program use and injection risks: A geobehavioral analysis. American Journal of Public Health 100:1068-1074. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2008.158337 PMID: 20395589
14. Friedman SR, Perlis T, Des Jarlais DC (2001) Laws prohibiting over-the-counter syringe sales to injection drug users: relations to population density, HIV prevalence, and HIV incidence. American Journal of Public Health 91: 791-793. PMID: 11344889
15. Bramson H, Des Jarlais DC, Arasteh K, Nugent A, Guardino V, et al (2015) State laws, syringe exchange, and HIV among persons who inject drugs in the United States: History and effectiveness. Journal of Public Health Policy 36: 212-230. doi: 10.1057/jphp.2014.54 PMID: 25590514
16. Linton S, Cooper HL, Kelley M, Karnes C, Wolfe ME, et al (2014) Geographic variations in racial/ethnic disparities in HIV among injection drug users in the United States. 142nd meeting of the American Public Health Association. New Orleans, LA: APHA.
17. Pouget ER, West BS, Tempalski B, Cooper HL, Hall HI, et al (2014) Persistent racial/ethnic disparities in AIDS diagnosis rates among people who inject drugs in U.S. metropolitan areas, 1993-2007. Public Health Reports 129: 267-279. PMID: 24791025
18. Broz D, Wejnert C, Pham HT, DiNenno E, Heffelfinger JD, et al (2014) HIV infection and risk, prevention, and testing behaviors among injecting drug users - National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System, 20 U.S. cities, 2009. MMWR Surveillance Summaries 63:1-51.
19. Rhodes T (2002) The 'risk environment': a framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy 13: 85-94.
20. Rhodes T (2009) Risk environments and drug harms: Asocial science for harm reduction approach. International Journal of Drug Policy 20:193-201. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.10.003 PMID: 19147339
21. Rhodes T, Mikhailova L, Sarang A, Lowndes C, Rylkov A, et al (2003) Situational factors influencing drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: a qualitative study of micro risk environment. Social Science & Medicine 57: 39-54.
22. Rhodes T, Singer M, Bourgois P, Friedman SR, Strathdee S.A. (2005) The social structural production of HIV risk among injecting drug users. Social Science & Medicine 61:1026-1044.
23. Strathdee SA, Hallett TB, Bobrova N, Rhodes T, Booth R, et al (2010) HIV and risk environment for injecting drug users: the past, present, and future. Lancet 376: 268-284. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10) 60743-X PMID: 20650523
24. Cooper HL, Linton S, Kelley ME, Zev R, Wolfe ME, et al (In press) Racialized risk environments in a large sample of people who inject drugs In the United States. International Journal of Drug Policy.
25. Northridge ME (1995) Annotation: Public Health Methods-Attributable Risk as a Link between Causality and Public Health Action. American Journal of Public Health 85:1205-1206.
26. Hennekens CH, Buring J.E. (1987) Epidemiology in Medicine; Mayrent SL, editor. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.
27. Gallagher K, Sullivan PS, Lansky A, Onorato I. (2007) Behavioral surveillance among people at risk for HIV infection in the U.S.: the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System. Public Health Reports 122: 32-38. PMID: 17354525
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) HIV infection and HIV-associated behaviors among injecting drug users - 20 cities, United States, 2009. MMWR 61:133-138. PMID: 22377843
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) Diagnoses of HIV infection among adults and adolescents, by sex and transmission category, 2010-46 states and 5 U.S. dependent areas. Atlanta, GA: CDC.
30. Office of Applied Studies in the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2010) National Directory of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Programs 2010. Bethesda, MD: SAMHSA.
31. McKnight C, Des Jarlais C, Perlis T, Eigo K, Krim M, et al (2005) Update: Syringe Exchange Programs - United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 54: 673-676. PMID: 16015218
32. Massey DS, Denton N.A. (1989) Hypersegregation in U.S. metropolitan areas: black and Hispanic segregation along five dimensions. Demography 26:373-391. PMID: 2792476
33. Massey D, Denton N. (1993) American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
34. Cooper H, Bonney L, Ross Z, Karnes C, Hunter-Jones J, et al (2013) The aftermath of public housing relocation: relationship to substance misuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 133: 37-44. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.06.003 PMID: 23850372
35. Cohen DA, Ghosh-Dastidar B, Scribner R, Miu A, Scott M, et al (2006) Alcohol outlets, gonorrhea, and the Los Angeles civil unrest: a longitudinal analysis. Social Science and Medicine 62: 3062-3071. PMID: 16423436
36. Cohen DA, Spear S, Scribner R, Kissinger P, Mason K, et al (2000) "Broken windows" and the risk of gonorrhea. American Journal of Public Health 90: 230-236. PMID: 10667184
37. Schonlau M, Scribner R, Farley TA, Theall K, Bluthenthal RN, et al (2008) Alcohol outlet density and alcohol consumption in Los Angeles county and southern Louisiana. Geospatial Health 3: 91-101. PMID: 19021112
38. Scribner RA, Cohen DA, Farley T.A. (1998) A geographic relation between alcohol availability and gonorrhea rates. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 26: 544-548.
39. Scribner RA, Cohen DA, Fisher W. (2000) Evidence of a structural effect for alcohol outlet density: a multilevel analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research 24:188-195.
40. Theall KP, Scribner R, Cohen D, Bluthenthal RN, Schonlau M, et al (2009) The neighborhood alcohol environment and alcohol-related morbidity. Alcohol & Alcoholism 44: 491-499.
41. Dauria E, Elifson K, Arriola K, Wingood G, Cooper HL (In press) Male incarceration rates and rates of sexually transmitted infections: Results from a longitudinal analysis in a southeastern US city. Sexually Transmitted Diseases.
42. Kim J-O, Mueller C.W. (1978) Factor Analysis: Statistical Methodsand Practical Issues; Uslaner E, editor. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
43. (2009) Code of Federal Regulations, Public Welfare, Department of Health and Human Services, Protection of Human Subjects. 45(46). USA: Code of Federal Regulations.
44. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978) Protection of Human Subjects, Belmont Report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects research. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
45. Office of the Associate Director for Science (2010) Human Research Protections. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
46. Diez Roux AV, Mair C (2010) Neighborhoods and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Medicine 1186: 125-145.
47. Putnam S, Galea S. (2008) Epidemiology and the macrosocial determinants of health. Journal of Public Health Policy 29: 275-289. doi: 10.1057/jphp.2008.15 PMID: 18701897
48. Adimora AA, Schoenbach V.J. (2005) Social context, social networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. Journal of Infectious Diseases 191: S115-S122. PMID: 15627221
49. Cooper HL, Caruso B, Barham T, Embry V, Dauria E, et al (2015) Partner Incarceration and African-American Women's Sexual Relationships and Risk: A Longitudinal Qualitative Study. Journal of Urban Health 92: 527-547. doi: 10.1007/s11524-015-9941-8 PMID: 25694224
50. Silver D (2014) Feds may be rethinking the drug war, but states have been leading the way. In: Center PR, editor. FactTank: News in the Numbers. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
51. Cooper HL, Hunter-Jones J, Kelley ME, Karnes C, Haley DF, et al (2014) The aftermath of public housing relocations: relationships between changes in local socioeconomic conditions and depressive symptoms in a cohort of adult relocaters. Journal of Urban Health 91: 223-241. doi: 10.1007/s11524-013-9844-5 PMID: 24311024
52. Kling J, Liebman JB, Katz L.F. (2007) Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects. Econometrica 75: 83-119.
53. Boardman J, Finch B, Ellison CG, Williams DR, Jackson J. (2001) Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42:151-165. PMID: 11467250
54. Galea S, Ahern J, Nandi A, Tracy M, Beard J, et al (2007) Urban neighborhood poverty and the incidence of depression in a population-based cohort study. Annals of Epidemiology 17:171-179. PMID: 17320784
55. Yen IH, Kaplan GA (1999) Poverty area residence and changes in depression and perceived health status: evidence from the Alameda County Study. International Journal of Epidemiology 28: 90-94. PMID: 10195670
56. Kim D (2008) Blues from the neighborhood? Neighborhood characteristics and depression. Epidemiologic Reviews 30:101-117. doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxn009 PMID: 18753674
57. Curry A, Latkin C, Davey-Rothwell M (2008) Pathways to depression: the impact of neighborhood violent crime on inner-city residents in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Social Science & Medicine 67: 23-30.
58. Alvy LM, McKirnan DJ, Mansergh G, Koblin B, Colfax GN, et al (2011) Depression is associated with sexual risk among men who have sex with men, but is mediated by cognitive escape and self-efficacy. AIDS&Behavior 15:1171-1179.
59. Lemstra M, Rogers M, Thompson A, Moraros J, Buckingham R (2011) Risk indicators of depressive symptomatology among injection drug users and increased HIV risk behaviour. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry - Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie 56: 358-366. PMID: 21756450
60. Shrier LA, Schillinger JA, Aneja P, Rice PA, Batteiger BE, et al (2009) Depressive symptoms and sexual risk behavior in young, chlamydia-infected, heterosexual dyads. Journal of Adolescent Health 45: 63-69. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.11.016 PMID: 19541251
61. Zierler S, Krieger N, Tang Y, Coady W, Siegfried E, et al (2000) Economic deprivation and AIDS incidence in Massachusetts. American Journal of Public Health 90:1064-1073. PMID: 10897184
62. Fife D, Mode C. (1992) AIDS incidence and income. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 5:1105-1110.
63. Hu D, Frey R, Costa S. (1994) Geographical AIDS rates and sociodemographic variables in Newark, New Jersey metropolitan area. AIDS Public Policy Journal 9: 20-25.
64. Simon P, Hu D, Diaz T, Kerndt P. (1995) Income and AIDS rates in Los Angeles County. AIDS 9: 281-284. PMID: 7755917
65. Cooper HL, Linton S, F HD, Kelley ME, Dauria EF, et al (In press) Changes in exposure to neighborhood characteristics are associated with sexual network characteristics in a cohort of adults relocating from public housing. AIDS and Behavior.
66. Ostir GV, Eschbach K, Markides KS, Goodwin J.S. (2003) Neighbourhood composition and depressive symptoms among older Mexican Americans. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 57: 987-992.
67. Patel KV, Eschbach K, Rudkin LL, Peek MK, Markides K.S. (2003) Neighborhood context and self-rated health in older Mexican Americans. Annals of Epidemiology 13: 620-628. PMID: 14732301
68. Logan JR, Zhang W, Alba R.D. (2002) Immigrant Enclaves and Ethnic Communities in New York and Los Angeles American Sociological Review 67: 299-322
69. Oster AM, Russell K, Wiegand RE, Valverde E, Forrest DW, et al (2013) HIV infection and testing among Latino men who have sex with men in the United States: the role of location of birth and other social determinants. PLoS ONE [Electronic Resource] 8: e73779. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073779 PMID: 24147151
70. Kramer MR, Hogue C.R. (2009) Is segregation bad for your health? Epidemiologic Reviews 31:178-194. doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxp001 PMID: 19465747
71. Williams DR, Collins C. (2001) Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports 116: 404-416. PMID: 12042604
72. Cooper HL, Wypij D, Krieger N. (2005) Police drug crackdowns and hospitalization rates for illicit-injection-related infections in New York City. International Journal of Drug Policy 16:150-160.
73. Alexander M (2010) The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
74. Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Kral AH, Erringer EA, Kahn J.G. (1999) Collateral damage in the war on drugs: injection drug use. International Journal of Drug Policy 10: 25-38.
75. Laumann EO, Youm Y. (1999) Racial/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted disesases in the United States: A network explanation. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 26: 250-261. PMID: 10333277
76. Kottiri BJ, Friedman SR, Neaigus A, Curtis R, Des Jarlais DC (2002) Risk networks and racial/ethnic differences in the prevalence of HIV infection among injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes: JAIDS 30: 95-104. PMID: 12048369
77. Curran JW, Jaffee H, Hardy A, Morgan W, Selik RM, et al (1988) Epidemiology of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States. Science 239: 610-616. PMID: 3340847
78. Laffoon B, Satcher Johnson A, Cohen S, Hu X, Shouse R. (2011) Disparities in diagnoses of HIV infection between Blacks/African Americans and other racial/ethnic populations - 37 states, 2005-2008. MMWR 60: 93-98. PMID: 21293323
79. Linton S, Cooper H, Kelley ME, Ross Z, Wolfe ME, et al (In press) Geographic distribution of HIV-positive injection drug users in the US in 2009. American Journal of Public Health.
80. Nakayama T (2000) Under-reporting of attributable risk and reporting of the risk ratio in epidemiologic literature. Epidemiology 11:366-367. PMID: 10784264
81. Nakayama T, Zaman MM, Tanaka H. (1998) Reporting of attributable and relative risks, 1966-97. Lancet 351:1179. PMID: 9643696
82. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013) Expanded Testing Initiative Atlanta, GA: CDC.
83. Kral AH, Malekinejad M, Vaudrey J, Martinez AN, Lorvick J, et al (2010) Comparing respondent-driven sampling and targeted sampling methods of recruiting injection drug users in San Francisco. Journal of Urban Health 87: 839-850. doi: 10.1007/s11524-010-9486-9 PMID: 20582573
84. Robinson WT, Risser JM, McGoy S, Becker AB, Rehman H, et al (2006) Recruiting injection drug users: a three-site comparison of results and experiences with respondent-driven and targeted sampling procedures. Journal of Urban Health 83: i29-38. PMID: 16933101
85. Des Jarlais DC, Braine N, Yi H, Turner C. (2007) Residual injection risk behavior, HIV infection, and the evaluation of syringe exchange programs. AIDS Education & Prevention 19:111-123.
86. Des Jarlais DC, Hagan H, Friedman SR, Friedmann P, Goldberg D, et al (1995) Maintaining low HIV seroprevalence in populations of injecting drug users. Jama 274:1226-1231. PMID: 7563513