The social structural production of HIV risk among injecting drug users

Social Science and Medicine

Volumn 61, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 1026-1044

  Rhodes, Tim ^a   Singer, Merrill ^b   Bourgois, Philippe ^c   Friedman, Samuel R ^d   Strathdee, Steffanie A ^e  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b HISPANIC HEALTH COUNCIL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

HIV AIDS; Injecting drug use; Prevention; Risk environment

Indexed keywords

DRUG USER;

ECONOMIC ASPECT; GROUP PSYCHOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN RIGHTS; INFECTION RISK; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; POLITICS; POPULATION DYNAMICS; POPULATION RESEARCH; PRISON; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIAL ASPECT; SOCIAL STRUCTURE; WELFARE;

EID: 20444418153     PISSN: 02779536     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.024     Document Type: Article

References (213)

1. M.L. Adelekan, and G.V. Stimson Problems and prospects of implementing harm reduction for HIV and injecting drug use in high risk sub-Saharan African countries Journal of Drug Issues 27 1997 97 116
2. M. Agar The story of crack: towards a theory of illicit drug trend Addiction Research and Theory 11 2003 3 29
3. M. Agar, and H.S. Reisinger Using trend theory to explain heroin use trends Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 33 2001 203 211
4. C. Aitken, D. Moore, P. Higgs, J. Kelsall, and M. Kerger The impact of a police crackdown on a street drug scene: evidence from the street International Journal of Drug Policy 13 2002 189 198
5. Akwir, M., Arkangel, A., Moluma, D., Idro, J. W., & Homsy, J. (1998). Vulnerability of refugee women to HIV/AIDS infection in refugee camps in northern Uganda. Twelfth World AIDS Conference, Durban [abstract WePeD4613].
6. L. Amowitz, C. Reis, and K.H. Lyons Prevalence of war-related sexual violence and other human rights abuses among internally displaced persons in Sierra Leone Journal of the American Medical Association 287 2002 513 521
7. Aral, S. O. (2002). Determinants of STD epidemics: implications for phase appropriate intervention strategies. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 78(Supplement 1), i3-13.
8. S.K. Avants, L.A. Warburton, K.A. Hawkins, and A. Margolin Continuation of high-risk behavior by HIV-Positive drug users Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 19 2000 15 22
9. H. Baer, M. Singer, and I. Susser Medical anthropology and the world system 2nd ed. 2003 Greenwood Publishing Westport, CT
10. A. Ball Policies and interventions to stem HIV-1 epidemics associated with injecting drug use G.V. Stimson D.C. Des Jarlais A. Ball Drug injecting and HIV infection 1998 UCL Press London 201 232
11. A. Ball, S. Rana, and K.L. Dehne HIV prevention among injecting drug users: responses in developing and transitional countries Public Health Reports 113 Supp 1 1998 170 181
12. C. Barcellos, and F.I. Bastos Redes sociais e difusao da AIDS no Brasil Boletin de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana 121 1996 11 24
13. T. Barnett, and A. Whiteside HIV/AIDS and development: case studies and a conceptual framework European Journal of Development Research 11 1999 200 234
14. F.I. Bastos, C. Barcellos, M.C. Lowndes, and S.R. Friedman Co-infection with malaria and HIV in injecting drug users in Brazil Addiction 94 1999 1165 1174
15. F.I. Bastos, and S. Strathdee Evaluating effectiveness of syringe exchange programmes Social Science & Medicine 51 2000 1771 1782
16. R.J. Battjes, R.W. Pickens, H.W. Haverkos, and Z. Sloboda HIV risk factors among injecting drug users in five US cities AIDS 8 1994 681 687
17. S. Beckerleg Living with Heroin at the Kenya coast R. Coomber N. South Drug use and cultural context 'Beyond the West' 2004 Free Association Books London
18. C. Beyrer Is trafficking a health issue? Lancet 363 2004 564
19. C. Beyrer, J. Jittiwutikarn, W. Teokul, M.H. Razak, V. Suriyanon, N. Srirak, T. Vongchuk, S. Tovanabutra, T. Sripaipan, and D.D. Celentano Drug use, increasing incarceration rates and prison-associated HIV risks in Thailand AIDS and Behavior 7 2003 153 161
20. C. Beyrer, M.H. Razak, K. Lisam, J. Chen, W. Lui, and X.F. Yu Overland heroin trafficking routes and HIV-1 spread in south and south-east Asia AIDS 14 2000 75 84
21. K.M. Blankenship, S. Bray, and M.H. Merson Structural interventions in public health AIDS 14 Supplement A 2000 S11 S21
22. R.N. Bluthenthal, A. Kral, J. Lorvick, and J.K. Watters Impact of law enforcement on syringe exchange programs Medical Anthrpology 18 1997 61 83
23. P. Bourdieu Masculine domination 2001 Stanford University Press Stanford, California.
24. P. Bourgois The moral economies of homeless heroin addicts: confronting ethnography and HIV risk and everyday violence in San Fransisco shooting encampments Substance Use and Misuse 33 1998 2323 2351
25. P. Bourgois US inner-city apartheid: the contours of structural and interpersonal violence N. Scheper-Hughes P. Bourgois Violence in war and peace: an anthology 2003 Blackwell Publishing Oxford 297 303
26. P. Bourgois Crack and the political economy of social suffering Addiction Research and Theory 11 2003 31 37
27. P. Bourgois US inner city apartheid and the war on drugs: crack among homeless heroin addicts A. Castro M. Singer Unhealthy health policy: a critical anthropological examination 2004 Altamira Press Walnut Creek, CA 303 313
28. P. Bourgois, and J. Bruneau Needle exchange, HIV Infection and the politics of science: confronting Canada's cocaine injection epidemic with participant observation Medical Anthropology 18 2000 325 350
29. P. Bourgois, M. Lettiere, and J. Quesada Social misery and the sanctions of substance use: confronting HIV risk among homeless heroin addicts in San Francisco Social Problems 44 1997 155 173
30. P. Bourgois, B. Prince, and A. Moss The everyday violence of hepatitis C among young women who inject drugs in San Francisco Human Organization 63 2004 253 264
31. S. Bray, J. Lawson, and R. Heimer Doffing the cap: increasing syringe availability by law but not in practice International Journal of Drug Policy 12 2001 221 235
32. R. Broadhead, D. Heckathorn, and D. Weakhern Harnessing peer education networks as an instrument for AIDS prevention Public Health Reports 113 Supplement 1 1998 42 57
33. A. Buavirat, K. Page-Shafer, G.J. van Griensven, J.S. Mandel, J. Evans, J. Chuaratanaphong, S. Chiamwongpat, R. Sacks, and A. Moss Risk of prevalent HIV infection associated with incarceration among injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand: case-control study British Medical Journal 326 2003 308
34. Bucardo, J., Brouwer, K.C., Magis, C., Fraga, M.A., Perez, S.G., Patterson, T.L., & Strathdee, S.A. Historical trends in the production and consumption of illicit drugs in Mexico: Implications for the prevention of blood borne infections. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, in press.
35. J. Burgermeister Three quarters of Russia's prisoners have serious diseases British Medical Journal 327 2003 1066
36. S. Burris Law as a structural factor in the spread of communicable disease Houston Law Review 36 1999 1755 1786
37. S. Burris, M. Donoghoe, S. Sherman, K. Blankenship, J.S. Vernick, P. Case, Z. Lazzarini, and S. Koester Addressing the 'risk environment' for injection drug users: the mysterious case of the missing cop Human Organization 2004 (in press)
38. W. Butler HIV/AIDS and drug misuse in Russia: harm reduction programmes and the russian legal system 2003 International Family Health London
39. D.A.A. Calsyn, A.J. Saxon, G. Freeman, and S. Whittaker Needle use practices among intravenous drug users in an area where needle purchase is legal AIDS 5 1991 187 193
40. C. Campbell, B. Williams, and D. Gilgen Is social capital a useful conceptual tool for exploring community level influences on HIV infection? AIDS Care 14 2002 41 54
41. Carballo, M., Puvacic, S., & Zeric, D. (1998). Implications of complex emergencies, uprooting and forced migration on risk of HIV/AIDS: the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Twelfth World AIDS Conference, Durban [abstract WePeD4613].
42. R.G. Carlson Shooting galleries, dope houses and injection doctors: examining the social ecology of HIV risk behaviours among drug injectors in Dayton, Ohio Human Organization 59 2000 325 333
43. P. Case, T. Meehan, and S. Jones Arrests and incarceration of injection drug users for syringe possession in Massachusetts: implications for HIV prevention Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retroviruses 18 Supplement 1 1998 S71 S75
44. D.D. Celentano, D. Vlahov, S. Cohn, J.C. Anthony, L. Solomon, and K.E. Nelson Risk factors for shooting gallery use and cessation among intravenous drug users American Journal of Public Health 81 1991 1291 1295
45. R. Chambers Rural development: putting the last first 1983 Longman London
46. D.D. Chitwood, C.B. McCoy, J.A. Inciardi, D. McBride, M. Comerford, and E. Trapido HIV seropositivity of needles from shooting galleries in south Florida American Journal of Public Health 80 1990 150 153
47. K. Choopanya, D.C. Des Jarlais, and S. Vanichseni Incarceration and risk for HIV infection among injection drug users in Bangkok Journal of AIDS 29 2002 86 94
48. K. Choopanya, S. Vanichseni, D.C. Des Jarlais, K. Plangsringarm, W. Sonchai, and M. Carballo Risk factors and HIV seropositivity among injecting drug users in Bangkok AIDS 5 1991 1509 1513
49. D. Ciccarone, and P. Bourgois Explaining the geographical variation of HIV among injection drug users in the United States Substance Use and Misuse 38 2003 2049 2063
50. C.J. Cohen The boundaries of blackness: AIDS and the breakdown of Black politics 1999 University of Chicago Press Chicago, IL
51. H. Cooper, L. Moore, S. Gruskin, and N. Krieger The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injector's ability to practice harm reduction: a qualitative study Social Science & Medicine 2004 (in press)
52. S.L. Coyle, R.H. Needle, and J. Normand Outreach-based HIV prevention for injecting drug users: a review of published outcomes data Public Health Reports 113 Supplement 1 1998 19 30
53. N. Crofts, G. Reid, and P. Deany Injecting drug use and HIV infection in Asia AIDS 12 Supplement B 1998 S69 S78
54. J. Decosas Migration and AIDS Lancet 346 1995 826 828
55. K.L. Dehne, L. Khodakevich, F.F. Hamers, and B. Schwartlander The HIV/AIDS epidemic in eastern Europe: Recent patterns and trends and their implication for policy-making AIDS 13 1999 741 749
56. F. Delor, and M. Hubert Revisiting the concept of 'vulnerability' Social Science & Medicine 50 2000 1557 1570
57. D. Des Jarlais Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injecting drug users AIDS 14 Supplement 1 2000 S41 S46
58. D.C. Des Jarlais, and S.R. Friedman Shooting galleries and AIDS: infection probabilities and 'tough' policies American Journal of Public Health 80 1990 142 144
59. A.V. Diez-Roux Bringing context back into epidemiology: variables and fallacies in multilevel analysis American Journal of Public Health 88 1998 216 222
60. K. Dolan, A. Wodak, and R. Penny AIDS behind bars: preventing HIV among incarcerated drug injectors AIDS 9 1995 825 832
61. M. Douglas Risk and blame: essays in cultural theory 1992 Routledge London
62. K. Dovey, J. Fitzgerald, and Y. Choi Safety becomes danger: dilemmas of drug use in public space Health and Place 7 2001 319 331
63. E. Drucker Drug prohibition and public health: 25 years of evidence Public Health Reports 114 1999 15 29
64. A. Edwards, S. Curtis, and J. Sherrard Survey of risk behaviour and HIV prevalence in an English prison International Journal of STD and AIDS 10 1999 464 466
65. J.L. Evans, J.A. Hahn, and K. Page-Shafer Gender differences in sexual and injection risk behaviour among active young injection drug users in San Francisco Journal of Urban Health 80 2003 137 146
66. N. Ezard Public health, human rights and the harm reduction paradigm: from risk reduction to vulnerability reduction International Journal of Drug Policy 12 2001 207 209
67. P. Farmer AIDS and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame 1992 University of California Press Berkeley, CA
68. P. Farmer, M. Connors, and J. Simmons Women, poverty and AIDS: sex, drugs and structural violence 1996 Common Courage Press Monroe, Maine
69. E. Fee, and N. Krieger Understanding AIDS: historical interpretations and the limits of biomedical individualism American Journal of Public Health 83 1993 1477 1487
70. S.R. Friedman, and S. Aral Social networks, risk-potential networks, health and disease Journal of Urban Health 78 2001 411 418
71. S.R. Friedman, R. Curtis, A. Neaigus, B. Jose, and D.C. Des Jarlais Social networks, drug injectors' lives and HIV/AIDS 1999 Kluwer/Plenum New York
72. S.R. Friedman, D.C. Des Jarlais, and T.P. Ward Social models for changing health-relevant behavior R. DiClemente J. Peterson Preventing AIDS: theories & methods of behavioral interventions 1994 Plenum Press New York 95 116
73. Friedman, S. R., Flom, P. L., Kottiri, B. J., Sandoval, M., Neaigus, A., Maslow, C., et al. (2002). Networks, norms and HIV risk in New York City. In The network paradigm on drug abuse, HIV and other blood-borne and sexually transmitted infections. NIDA/CAMCODA Working Meeting.
74. S.R. Friedman, B. Jose, S. Deren, D.C. Des Jarlais, and A. Neaigus Risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion among out-of-treatment drug injectors in high and low seroprevalence cities American Journal of Epidemiology 142 1995 864 874
75. S.R. Friedman, B. Jose, and B. Stepherson Multiple racial/ethnic subordination and HIV among drug injectors M. Singer The political economy of AIDS 1998 Baywood New York 131 148
76. S.R. Friedman, B.J. Kottiri, A. Neaigus, R. Curtis, S.H. Vermund, and D.C. Des Jarlais Network related mechanisms may help explain long-term HIV-1 seroprevalence levels that remain high but do not approach population-group saturation American Journal of Epidemiology 152 2000 912 922
77. S.R. Friedman, A. Neaigus, B. Jose, R. Curtis, M. Goldstein, and G. Ildefonso Sociometric risk networks and HIV risk American Journal of Public Health 87 1997 1289 1296
78. S.R. Friedman, A. Neaigus, B. Jose, R. Curtis, G. Ildefonso, M. Goldstein, and D.C. Des Jarlais Networks, norms, and solidaristic/altruistic action against AIDS among the demonized Sociological Focus 32 1999 127 142
79. S.R. Friedman, T. Perlis, and D.C. Des Jarlais Laws prohibiting over-the-counter syringe sales to injection drug users: relations to population density, HIV prevalence and HIV incidence American Journal of Public Health 91 2001 791 793
80. S.R. Friedman, and G. Reid The need for dialectical models as shown in the response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic International Journal of Sociology 22 2002 177 200
81. S. Galea, A. Nandi, and D. Vlahov The social epidemiology of drug use Epidemiologic Reviews 26 2004 36 52
82. S. Galea, and D. Vlahov Social determinants and the health or drug users: socioeconomic status, homelessness and incarceration Public Health Reports 117 2002 S115 S145
83. P. Gillies, K. Tolley, and J. Wollstenholme Is AIDS a disease of poverty? A.J. Lemelle C. Harrington A.J. LeBlanc Readings in the sociology of AIDS 2000 Prentice-Hall New Jersey
84. J. Grange, and A. Zumla The global emergency of tuberculosis: what is the cause? Journal of the Royal Society of Health 122 2002 78 81
85. Griffiths, P. (2000). An assessment of the HIV risk environment along heroin highway 7 in Nghe An Province, North-central Vietnam. Twelfth International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm, Delhi.
86. Grund, J.-P., Kobzev, D., Melnikov, V., Zadoretsky, C., Zemlianova, E., Titus, S., et al. (2001). Drug use patterns and HIV risk behaviours of Russian syringe exchange participants. Twelfth International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm, New Delhi, India.
87. J.P.C. Grund, L.S. Stern, C.D. Kaplan, N.F.P. Adriaans, and E. Drucker Drug use contexts and HIV-consequences: the effect of drug policy on patterns of everyday drug use in Rotterdam and the Bronx British Journal of Addiction 87 1992 41 52
88. M. Haan, and G. Kaplan The contribution of socio-economic position to minority health Report of the secretary's task force on Black and minority health Vol. 2 1985 US Department of Health and Human Sciences Washington, DC
89. T.M. Hammett, D. Des Jarlais, W. Liu, D. Ngu, N.D. Tung, T.V. Hoang, L.K. Van, and M. Dongua Development and implementation of a cross-border HIV prevention intervention for injection drug users in Ning Ming County (Guangxi Province), China and Lang Son Province, Vietnam International Journal of Drug Policy 14 2003 389 398
90. T.M. Hammett, M.P. Harmon, and W. Rhodes The burden of infectious disease among inmates of and releases from US correctional facilities, 1997 American Journal of Public Health 92 2002 1789 1794
91. C.A. Hankins, S.R. Friedman, T. Zafar, and S.A. Strathdee Transmission and prevention of HIV and sexually transmitted infections in war settings: implications for current and future armed conflicts AIDS 16 2000 2245 2252
92. P.M. Harrison, and J.C. Karberg Prison and jail inmates at midyear 2003 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice Washington, DC
93. E. Harvey, S.A. Strathdee, D.M. Patrick, M. Ofner, C.P. Archibald, G. Eades, and M.V. O'Shaughnessy A qualitative investigation into an HIV outbreak among injection drug users in Vancouver, British Columbia AIDS Care 10 313-21 1998
94. W.E. Hawkins, C. Latkin, W. Mandell, and M. Oziemkowska Do actions speak louder than words? Perceived peer influences on needle sharing and cleaning in a sample of injection drug users AIDS Education and Prevention 11 1999 122 131
95. C. Hefferman HIV, sexually transmitted infections and social inequalities: when the transmission is more social than sexual International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 22 2002 159 176
96. R. Heimer, R.N. Blumenthal, M. Singer, and K. Khoshnood Structural impediments to operational syringe-exchange programs AIDS and Public Policy Journal 11 1996 169 184
97. R. Heimer, S. Bray, S. Burris, K. Khoshnood, and K. Blankenship Structural interventions to improve opiate maintenance International Journal of Drug Policy 13 2002 103 111
98. D.R. Holtgrave, and R.A. Crosby Social capital, poverty and income inequality as predictors of gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia and AIDS case rates in the United States Sexually Transmitted Infectious 79 2003 62 64
99. S.F. Hurley, D.J. Jolley, and J.M. Kaldor Effectiveness of needle-exchange programmes for prevention of HIV infection Lancet 349 1997 1797 1800
100. GA. Kaplan What's wrong with social epidemiology, and how can we make it better? Epidemiologic Reviews 26 2004 124 135
101. I. Kawachi, and B.P. Kennedy Health and social cohesion: why care about income inequality? British Medical Journal 314 1997 1037 1040
102. A. Kleinman V. Das M. Lock Social suffering 1997 University of California Press Berkeley
103. S. Koester Copping, running and paraphernalia laws: contextual variables and needle risk behaviour among injection drug users in Denver Human Organization 53 1994 287 295
104. A.H. Kral, R.N. Blumenthal, E.A. Erringer, J. Lorvick, and B.R. Edlin Risk factors among IDUs who give injections to or receive injections from other drug users Addiction 94 1999 675 683
105. N. Krieger, S. Zierler, Y. Tang, W. Coady, E. Siegfreid, E. DeMaria, and J. Auerbacj Economic deprivation and AIDS incidence in Massachusetts American Journal of Public Health 90 2000 1064 1073
106. Kuo, S., Ul-Hasan, T., Zafar, N., Galai, N., Imam, G., Sherman, S. G., & Strathdee, S. A. (2004). Fluctuations in drug cost related to transition from non-injectiong to injection drug use among injection drug users in Pakistan. XV International Conference on AIDS, Bangkok, Thailand.
107. R. Lacerda Truck drivers in Brazil: prevalence of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, risk behaviour and potential for spread of infection AIDS 11 Supplement 1 1997 S15 S19
108. A. Laetitia, M. Carael, J.-B. Brunet, T. Frasca, and N. Chaika Social change and HIV in the former USSR: the making of a new epidemic Social Science & Medicine 50 2000 1547 1556
109. C.A. Latkin, and A.D. Curry Stressful neighborhoods and depression: a prospective study of the impact of neighborhood disorder Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 44 2003 34 44
110. C.A. Latkin, V. Forman, A. Knowlton, and S. Sherman Norms, social networks and HIV-related risk behaviours among urban disadvantaged drug users Social Science & Medicine 56 2003 465 476
111. C.A. Latkin, W. Mandell, D. Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, and D.D. Celentano People and places: behavioural settings and personal network characteristics as correlates of needle sharing Journal of Acquirted Immune Deficiency Syndromes 13 1996 273 280
112. A.J. Lemelle Racialized social system and HIV infection: the case of African Americans International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 22 2002 133 158
113. Liitsola, K., Tashinova, I., Korovina, G., et al. (1998). HIV-1 genetic subtype A/B recombinant strain causing an explosive IDU epidemic in Kaliningrad. Twelfth World AIDS Conference, Geneva [abstract 13190].
114. J. Lomas Social capital and health: implications for public health and epidemiology Social Science & Medicine 47 1998 1181 1188
115. P. Lurie, and E. Drucker An opportunity lost: HIV infections associated with lack of national needle-exchange programme in the USA Lancet 349 1997 604 608
116. C. Lyttleton, and A. Amarapibal Sister cities and easy passage: HIV, mobility and economies of desire in a Thai/Loa border zone Social Science & Medicine 54 2002 505 518
117. S. Magura, P.C. Nwakeze, A. Rosenblum, and H. Joseph Substance misuse and related infectious diseases in a soup kitchen population Substance Use and Misuse 35 2000 551 583
118. L. Maher, and D. Dixon Policing and public health: law enforcement and harm minimisation in a street-level drug market British Journal of Criminology 39 1999 488 511
119. J. Mann, L. Gostin, and S. Gruskin Health and human rights J. Mann L. Gostin S. Gruskin G. Annas A health and human rights reader 1999 Routledge New York
120. C. McCord, and H.P. Freeman Excess mortality in Harlem New England Journal of Medicine 322 1990 173
121. D. Metzger, G. Woody, D. De Philippis, A.T. McLellan, C.P. O'Brien, and J.J. Platt Risk factors for needle sharing among methadone-treated patients American Journal of Psychiatry 148 1991 636 640
122. M. Miller, and A. Neaigus Networks, resources and risk among women who use drugs Social Science & Medicine 52 2001 967 978
123. Mokienko, M., & Mokienko, I. (2001). Harm reduction programme in Sakhalin, Russia. Twelfth International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm, New Delhi, India.
124. C. Muntaner, J. Lynch, and G. Davey Smith Social capital and the third way in public health Critical Public Health 10 2000 108 121
125. A. Neaigus The network approach and interventions to prevent HIV among injection drug users Public Health Reports 113 Supplement 1 1998 140 150
126. A. Neaigus, S.R. Freidman, and R. Curtis the relevance of drug injectors' social and risk networks for understanding and preventing HIV infection Social Science & Medicine 38 1994 67 78
127. A. Nicoll, and O.N. Gill The global impact of HIV infection and disease Communicable Disease and Public Health 2 1999 85 95
128. S. Nzyuko Adolescent sexual behaviour along the Trans-Africa Highway in Kenya AIDS 11 Supplement 1 1997 S21 S26
129. J. Ouellet, A. Jimenez, and W. Johnson Shooting galleries and HIV disease: variations in places for injecting drugs Crime and Delinquency 37 1991 64 85
130. B.J. Page Shooting scenarios and risk of HIV-1 infection American Behavioral Scientist 33 1990 478 490
131. D. Paone, J. Clark, Q. Shi, D. Purchase, and D.C. Des Jarlais Syringe exchange in the United States, 1996: a national profile American Journal of Public Health 89 1999 43 46
132. R. Parker, and P. Aggleton HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action Social Science & Medicine 57 2003 13 24
133. R.G. Parker, D. Easton, and C.H. Klein Structural barriers and facilitators in HIV prevention: a review of international research AIDS 14 Supplement A 2000 S22 S32
134. G. Pearson Social deprivation, unemployment and patterns of heroin use N. Dorn N. South A land fit for heroin 1987 Macmillan London
135. D. Pederson Political violence, ethnic conflict, and contemporary wars: broad implications for health and social well-bring Social Science & Medicine 55 2002 175 190
136. S.V. Poloubinskaya Russian legislation and the prevention of HIV among intravenous drug users, (information booklet) 2002 Open Society Institute Moscow
137. D. Porter, and R. Bennoun On the borders of research, policy and practice G. Linge D. Porter No place for borders 1997 Allen and Unwin Sydney 149 163
138. K.E. Poundstrone, S.A. Strathdee, and D.D. Celentano The social epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Epidemiologic Reviews 26 2004 22 35
139. R.D. Putnam Bowling alone: America's declining social capital Journal of Democracy 6 1995 65 78
140. M. Quam AIDS policy and United States political economy D. Feldman Global AIDS Policy: Political Economy 1994 Bergin and Garvey Westport, CT 142 159
141. E. Quimby, and S.R. Friedman Dynamics of Black mobilization against AIDS in New York City Social Problems 36 4 1989 403 415
142. G. Reid, and N. Crofts Revisiting the hidden epidemic: a situation assessment of drug use in Asia in the context of HIV/AIDS 2002 The Centre for Harm Reduction Melbourne (pp. 20-26)
143. T. Rhodes Risk theory in epidemic times Sociology of Health and Illness 19 1997 208 227
144. T. Rhodes The 'risk environment': a framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm International Journal of Drug Policy 13 2002 85 94
145. T. Rhodes, A. Ball, G.V. Stimson, Y. Kobyshcha, C. Fitch, and V. Pokrovsky HIV infection in the newly independent states, eastern Europe: the social and economic context of epidemics Addiction 94 1999 1323 1336
146. Rhodes, T., Fitch, C., Kumar, S., Rigley, C., & Daniels, D. (2005). HIV risk reduction and production in the public injecting environments of Madras, submitted for publication.
147. T. Rhodes, A. Judd, and L. Mikhailova Injecting equipment sharing among injecting drug users in Togliatti City, Russia: maximising the protective effects of syringe distribution Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35 2004 293 300
148. T. Rhodes, R. Lilly, and C. Fernandez Risk factors associated with drug use: the importance of risk environment Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 10 2003 303 329
149. T. Rhodes, L. Mikhailova, A. Sarang, C. Lowndes, A. Rylkov, and M. Khutorskoy Situational factors associated with drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange practices in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: a qualitative study of micro risk environment Social Science & Medicine 57 2003 39 54
150. T. Rhodes, G.V. Stimson, N. Crofts, A. Ball, K.L. Dehne, and L. Khodakevich Drug injecting, rapid HIV spread and the 'risk environment' AIDS 13 1999 S259 S269
151. J.D. Rich, B.P. Dickinson, and P. Case Strict syringe laws in Rhode Island are associated with high rates of re-using syringes and HIV risks among IDUs (letter) Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retroviruses 18 Supplement 1 1998 S140
152. L.N. Robins, J.E. Helzer, and D.H. Davis Narcotic use in Southeast Asia and afterward Archives of General Psychiatry 32 1975 1593 1594
153. R. Rockwell, D.C. Des Jarlais, S.R. Friedman, T.E. Perlis, and D. Paone Geographic proximity, policy and utilisation of syringe exchange programmes AIDS Care 11 1999 437 442
154. R.B. Rothenberg, D.E. Woodhouse, J.J. Potterat, S.Q. Muth, W.W. Darrow, and A.S. Klovdahl Social networks in disease transmission: the Colorado Springs Study NIDA Research Monographs 1995 3 19
155. D.A. Rothon, R.G. Mathias, and M.T. Schechter Prevalence of HIV infection in provincial prisons in British Coumbia Canadian Medical Association Journal 151 1994 781 787
156. P. Salama, B. Laurence, and M.L. Nolan Health and human rights in contemporary humanitarian crises British Medical Journal 319 1999 1569 1571
157. M.O. Santos-Ferreira, T. Cohen, M.H. Lourenco, M.J. Matos Almeida, S. Charamaret, and L. Montagnier A study of seroprevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in six provinces of People's Republic of Angola Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 3 1990 780 786
158. S. Sarkar, N. Das, S. Panda, T.K. Naik, K. Sarkar, B.C. Singh, J.M. Ralte, S.M. Aier, and S.P. Tripathy Rapid spread of HIV among injecting drug users in north-eastern states of India Bulletin on Narcotics, XLV 1 1994 91 105
159. K. Sarkar, S. Panda, N. Das, and S. Sarkar Relationship of national highway with injecting drug abuse and HIV in rural Manipur, India Indian Journal of Public Health 41 1997 49 51
160. M.T. Schechter, S.A. Strathdee, and P.G. Cornelisse Do needle exchange programmes increase the spread of HIV among injection drug users? An investigation of the Vancouver outbreak AIDS 13 1999 F45 F51
161. M. Shinn, B.C. Weitzman, and K. Hopper Homelessness. Encyclopedia of mental health Vol. 2 1998 Academic Press San Diego (pp. 393-402)
162. K.J. Sikkema, T.G. Heckman, J.A. Kelly, E.S. Anderson, R.A. Winett, and L.J. Solomon HIV risk behaviours among women living in low-income, inner-city housing developments American Journal of Public Health 86 1996 1123 1128
163. M. Singer AIDS and the health crisis of the US urban poor: the perspective of critical medical anthropology Social Science & Medicine 39 1994 931 948
164. M. Singer Forging a political economy of AIDS M. Singer The political economy of AIDS 1997 Baywood New York 131 148
165. M. Singer Toward a biocultural and political economic integration of alcohol, tobacco and drug studies in the coming century Social Science & Medicine 53 2001 199 213
166. M. Singer Imprisoning AIDS Newsletter of the AIDS and Anthropology Research Group 15 2003 1 2
167. M. Singer Why is it easier to get drugs than drug treatment? A. Castro M. Singer Unhealthy health policy: a critical anthropological examination 2004 Altamira Press Walnut Creek, CA
168. M. Singer Something dangerous: changing illicit drug use patterns and community health 2005 Waveland Press Il
169. M. Singer, and S. Clair Syndemics and public health: reconceptualizing disease in bio-social context Medical Anthropology Quarterly 17 4 2003 423 441
170. M. Singer, Z. Jia, JJ. Schensul, M. Weeks, and JB. Page AIDS and the intravenous drug user: the local context in prevention efforts Medical Anthropology 14 1992 285 306
171. M. Singer, J. Li, and M. Duke Drug use patterns and AIDS risk in China 2003 Society for Applied Anthropology Portland, Oregon
172. M. Singer, H. Salaheen, and Z. He The special HIV and related health vulnerabilities of sex workers caught in the international sex trade industry 2004 Society for Applied Anthropology Dallas, TX
173. M. Singer, J. Simmons, M. Duke, and L. Broomhall The challenges of street research on drug use, violence, and AIDS risk Addiction Research and Theory 9 2001 365 402
174. M. Singer, T. Stopka, C. Siano, K. Springer, G. Barton, K. Khoshnood, A. Gorry de Puga, and R. Heimer The social geography of AIDS and hepatitis risk American Journal of Public Health 90 2000 1049 1056
175. M. Singer, and E. Toledo Oppression illness: critical theory and intervention with women at risk for AIDS 1995 American Anthropology Association Washington, DC
176. M. Singer M. Weeks D. Himmelgreen Sale and exchange of syringes (letter to the editor) Journal of Acquired Immunodeficiency Disease Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 10 1995 104
177. R. Skeldon Population mobility and HIV vulnerability in South East Asia 2000 UNDP Bangkok
178. M.R. Smallman-Raynor, and A.D. Cliff Civil war and the spread of AIDS in Central Africa Epidemiological Infections 107 1991 69 80
179. J.Y. Song, M. Safaeian, S.A. Strathdee, D. Vlahov, and D.D. Celetano The prevalence of homelessness among injection drug users with and without HIV infection Journal of Urban Health 77 2000 678 687
180. V. Soskolne, and R.A. Shtarkshall Migration and HIV prevention programmes: linking structural factors, culture and individual behaviour - an Israeli experience Social Science & Medicine 55 2002 1297 1307
181. P.B. Spiegel HIV/AIDS among conflict-affected and displaced populations: dispelling myths and taking action Disasters 28 2004 322 339
182. C. Sterk-Elifson, and K.W. Elifson Someone to count on: homeless, male drug users and their friendship relations Urban Anthropology 21 1992 235 251
183. G.V. Stimson The global diffusion of injecting drug use: implications for human immunodeficiency virus infection Bulletin on Narcotics, XLV 1 1993 3 17
184. S.A. Strathdee, D.M. Patrick, C.P. Archibald, M. Ofner, P.G. Cornelisse, M. Rekart, M.T. Schechter, and M.V. O'Shaughnessy Social determinants predict needle sharing behaviour among injection drug users in Vancouver, Canada Addiction 92 1997 1339 1347
185. S.A. Strathdee, D.M. Patrick, S.L. Currie, P.G. Cornelisse, M.L. Rekart, J.S. Montaner, M.T. Schechter, and M.V. O'Shaughnessy Needle exchange is not enough: lessons from the Vancouver injecting drug use study AIDS 11 1997 59 65
186. S.A. Strathdee, T. Zafar, H. Brahmbhatt, A. Baksh, and S. ul Hassan Higher levels of needle sharing among injection drug users in Pakistan during the Afghanistan war Drug and Alcohol Dependence 71 2003 17 24
187. E. Sumartojo Structural factors in HIV prevention: concepts, examples and implications for research AIDS 14 2000 S3 S10
188. E. Susser, M. Miller, E. Valencia, P. Colson, B. Roche, and S. Conover Injection drug use and risk of HIV transmission among homeless men with mental illness American Journal of Psychiatry 153 1996 794 798
189. M. Susser, and E. Susser Choosing a future for epidemiology: from black box to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology American Journal of Public Health 86 1996 668 673
190. M.D. Sweat, and J.A. Denison Reducing HIV incidence in developing countries with structural and environmental interventions AIDS 9 Supplement A 1995 S251 S257
191. L.M. Takahashi, D. Wiebe, and R. Rodriguez Navigating the time-space context of HIV and AIDS: daily routines and access to care Social Science & Medicine 53 2001 845 863
192. J.A. Taussig, B. Weinstein, S. Burris, and T.S. Jones Syringe laws and pharmacy regulations are structural constraints on HIV prevention in the US AIDS 14 Supplement 1 2000 S57 S63
193. O. Tawil, A. Verster, and K.R. O'Reilly Enabling approaches for HIV/AIDS prevention: can we modify the environment and minimise the risk? AIDS 9 1997 1299 1306
194. A. Taylor, D. Goldberg, J. Emslie, J. Wrench, L. Gruer, S. Cameron, J. Black, B. Davis, J. McGregor, and E. Follett Outbreak of HIV infection in a Scottish prison British Medical Journal 310 1995 289 292
195. L.E. Thorpe, L.J. Ouellet, J.R. Levy, I.T. Williams, and E.R. Monterroso Hepatitis C virus infection: prevalence, risk factors and prevention of opportunities among young injection drug users in Chicago, 1997-1999 Journal of Infectious Diseases 182 2000 1588 1594
196. M.J. Toole Complex emergencies: refugees and other populations E. Noji The public health consequences of disasters 1999 Oxford University Press New York
197. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Building an alliance with transport sector in HIV vulnerability reduction 2001 UNDP South East Asia HIV and Development Project Bangkok
198. E.J.C Van Ameijden, and R.A. Coutinho Maximum impact of HIV prevention measures targeted at injecting drug users AIDS 12 1998 625
199. D. Vlahov, D.C. Des Jarlais, E. Goosby, P.C. Hollinger, P.G. Lurie, M.D. Shriver, and S.A. Strathdee Needle exchange programs for the prevention of human immunodeficiency virus infection: epidemiology and policy American Journal of Epidemiology 154 Supplement 2001 S70 S77
200. R. Wallace Urban desertification, public health and public order: 'planned shrinkage', violent death, substance abuse and AIDS in the Bronx Social Science & Medicine 31 1990 801 813
201. R. Wallace, M. Fullilove, R. Fullilove, P. Gould, and D. Wallace Will AIDS be contained within US minority urban populations? Social Science & Medicine 39 1994 1051 1062
202. A. Waterson Street addicts in the political economy 1993 Temple University Press Philadelphia
203. J. Watters Americans and syringe exchange: roots of resistance T. Rhodes R. Hartnoll AIDS, drugs and prevention: perspectives on individual and community action 1996 Routledge London 22 41
204. M. Weeks, S. Clair, M. Singer, K. Radda, J. Schensul, S. Wilson, M. Martinez, G. Scott, and G. Knight High risk drug use sites, meaning and practice Journal of Drug Issues 31 2001 781 808
205. B. Weinstein, P. Toce, D. Katz, and L.L. Ryan Peer education of pharmacists and supplying pharmacists with IDU packets to increase injection drug users' access to sterile syringes in Connecticut (letter) Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retroviruses 18 Supplement 1 1998 S146 S147
206. D.R. Williams Race, socioeconomic status, and health: the added effects of racism and discrimination Annual New York Academy of Science 896 1999 173 188
207. D. Wohlfeiler Structural and environmental HIV prevention for gay and bisexual men AIDS 14 Supplement 1 2000 S52 S56
208. E. Wollants, M. Schoenenberg, C. Figueroa, G. Shor-Posner, W. Klaskala, and M.K. Baum Risk factors and patterns of HIV-1 transmission in the El Salvador military during war time AIDS 9 1995 1291 1292
209. E. Wood, M.W. Tyndall, P.M. Spittal, K. Li, R.S. Hogg, M.V. O'Shaughnessy, and M.T. Schechter Needle exchange and difficulty with needle access during an ongoing HIV epidemic International Journal of Drug Policy 13 2002 95 102
210. E. Wood, P. Spittal, W. Small, T. Kerr, K. Li, R.S. Hogg, M.W. Tyndall, and J.S. Montaner Displacement of Canada's largest public illicit drug market in response to a police crackdown Canadian Medical Association Journal 170 2004 1551 1556
211. N.H. Wright, S. Vanichsem, P. Akarasewi, C. Wasi, and K. Choopanya Was the 1988 HIV epidemic among Bangkok's injecting drug users a common source outbreak? AIDS 8 1994 529 532
212. T. Zafar, and S. ul Hasan A sociodemographic and behavioural profile of heroin users and the risk environment in Quetta, Pakistan International Journal of Drug Policy 13 2002 121 125
213. S. Zierler, N. Krieger, and Y. Tang Economic deprivation and AIDS incidence in Massachusetts American Journal of Public Health 90 2000 1064 1073