Microbiological food safety status of commercially produced tomatoes from production to marketing

Journal of Food Protection

Volumn 79, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 392-406

  Van Dyk, Brigitte N ^a   De Bruin, Willeke ^a   Du Plessis, Erika M ^a   Korsten, Lise ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Coliform; Escherichia coli; Food safety management system; Salmonella Typhimurium; Tomato safety

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL DNA;

BACTERIAL COUNT; CITROBACTER; DNA SEQUENCE; ENTEROBACTER; ESCHERICHIA COLI O157; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD CONTROL; FOOD SAFETY; GENETICS; IRRIGATION (AGRICULTURE); ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; KLEBSIELLA; MARKETING; MATRIX-ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION-IONIZATION MASS SPECTROMETRY; MICROBIOLOGY; PREVENTION AND CONTROL; PROCEDURES; RISK ASSESSMENT; SALMONELLA ENTERICA SEROVAR TYPHIMURIUM; SOUTH AFRICA; STANDARDS; TOMATO;

AGRICULTURAL IRRIGATION; CITROBACTER; COLONY COUNT, MICROBIAL; DNA, BACTERIAL; ENTEROBACTER; ESCHERICHIA COLI O157; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; FOOD SAFETY; KLEBSIELLA; LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM; MARKETING; RISK ASSESSMENT; SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS, DNA; SOUTH AFRICA; SPECTROMETRY, MASS, MATRIX-ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION-IONIZATION; WATER MICROBIOLOGY;

EID: 84960898890     PISSN: 0362028X     EISSN: 19449097     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-15-300     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Abadias, M., J. Usall, M. Anguera, C. Solsona, and I. Viñas. 2008. Microbiological quality of fresh, minimally-processed fruit and vegetables, and sprouts from retail establishments. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 123:121-129.
2. Allende, A. and J. Monaghan. 2015. Irrigation water quality for leafy crops: A perspective of risks and potential solutions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12:7457-7477.
3. Almuzara, M. N., M. Vazquez, N. Tanaka, M. Turco, M. S. Ramirez, E. L. Lopez, F. Pasteran, M. Rapoport, A. Procopio, and C. A. Vay. 2010. First case of human infection due to Pseudomonas fulva, an environmental bacterium isolated from cerebrospinal fluid. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48:660-664.
4. Andrews, W. H., A. Jacobsen, and T. Hammack. 2011. Salmonella. In Bacteriological analytical manual. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
5. Anonymous. 2011. E. Coli outbreak: EU proposes 150m euros to aid farmers. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13683270. Accessed 20 June 2015.
6. AOAC International. 2000. Method 991.14. Coliform and Escherichia coli counts in food, p. 22-23. In Official methods of analysis, 17th ed. AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD.
7. Bae, Y.-M., S.-Y. Baek, and S.-Y. Lee. 2012. Resistance of pathogenic bacteria on the surface of stainless steel depending on attachment form and efficacy of chemical sanitizers. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 153:465-473.
8. Bartz, J. A., H.-G. Yuk, M. J. Mahovic, B. R. Warren, A. Sreedharan, and K. R. Schneider. 2015. Internalization of Salmonella enterica by tomato fruit. Food Control 55:141-150.
9. Bell, R. L., J. Zheng, E. Burrows, S. Allard, C. Y. Wang, C. E. Keys, D. C. Melka, E. Strain, Y. Luo, M. W. Allard, S. Rideout, and E. W. Brown. 2015. Ecological prevalence, genetic diversity, and epidemiological aspects of Salmonella isolated from tomato agricultural regions of the Virginia eastern shore. Front. Microbiol. 6:415. (Epub.)
10. Bercovier, H., D. J. Brenner, J. Ursing, A. G. Steigerwalt, G. R. Fanning, J. M. Alonso, G. P. Carter, and H. Mollaret. 1980. Characterization of Yersinia enterocolitica sensu stricto. Curr. Microbiol. 4:201-206.
11. Berg, G., A. Erlacher, K. Smalla, and R. Krause. 2014. Vegetable microbiomes: is there a connection among opportunistic infections, human health and our gut feeling? Microb. Biotechnol. 7:487-495.
12. Berg, G., A. Krechel, M. Ditz, R. A. Sikora, A. Ulrich, and J. Hallmann. 2005. Endophytic and ectophytic potato-Associated bacterial communities differ in structure and antagonistic function against plant pathogenic fungi. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 51:215-229.
13. Berg, G., N. Roskot, A. Steidle, L. Eberl, A. Zock, and K. Smalla. 2002. Plant-dependent genotypic and phenotypic diversity of antagonistic rhizobacteria isolated from different Verticillium host plants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:3328-3338.
14. Berg, G., and K. Smalla. 2009. Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 68:1-13.
15. Beuchat, L. R. 2002. Ecological factors influencing survival and growth of human pathogens on raw fruits and vegetables. Microbes Infect. 4:413-423.
16. Beuchat, L. R., and J.-H. Ryu. 1997. Produce handling and processing practices. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 3:459-465.
17. Brenner, D. J., A. C. McWhorter, J. K. L. Knutson, and A. G. Steigerwalt. 1982. Escherichia vulneris: A new species of Enterobacteriaceae associated with human wounds. J. Clin. Microbiol. 15:1133-1140.
18. Carrasco, E., A. Morales-Rueda, and R. M. Garćia-Gimeno. 2012. Cross-contamination and recontamination by Salmonella in foods: A review. Food Res. Int. 45:545-556.
19. Cebula, T. A., W. L. Payne, and P. Feng. 1995. Simultaneous identification of strains of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 and their Shiga-like toxin type by mismatch amplification mutation assay-multiplex PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:248-250.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Multistate outbreaks of Salmonella infections associated with raw tomatoes eaten in restaurants-United States, 2005-2006. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 56:909-911.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. Foodborne outbreak online database (FOOD). Available at: http://wwwn.cdc. gov/foodborneoutbreaks/Default.aspx. Accessed 6 October 2015.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. List of selected multistate foodborne outbreak investigations. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/outbreaks/multistate-outbreaks/outbreakslist. html. Accessed 6 October 2015.
23. Cevallos-Cevallos, J. M., M. D. Danyluk, G. Gu, G. E. Vallad, and A. H. van Bruggen. 2012. Dispersal of Salmonella Typhimurium by rain splash onto tomato plants. J. Food Prot. 75:472-479.
24. Cevallos-Cevallos, J. M., G. Gu, S. M. Richardson, J. Hu, and A. H. van Bruggen. 2014. Survival of Salmonella enterica Typhimurium in water amended with manure. J. Food Prot. 77:2035-2042.
25. Cooley, M. B., W. G. Miller, and R. E. Mandrell. 2003. Colonization of Arabidopsis thaliana with Salmonella enterica and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 and competition by Enterobacter asburiae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:4915-4926.
26. Cornelis, G., R. Luke, and M. Richmond. 1978. Fermentation of raffinose by lactose-fermenting strains of Yersinia enterocolitica and by sucrose-fermenting strains of Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Microbiol. 7:180-183.
27. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. 2010. A CSIR perspective on water in South Africa, 2010. CSIR report CSIR/NRE/PW/IR/2011/0012/A. Available at: http://www.csir.co.za/nre/docs/CSIR Perspective on Water-2010.PDF. Accessed 15 July 2015.
28. Coutinho, T. A., and S. N. Venter. 2009. Pantoea ananatis: An unconventional plant pathogen. Mol. Plant Pathol. 10:325-335.
29. Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries. 2013. A profile of the South African tomato market value chain. Available at: http://www.nda.agric.za/doaDev/sideMenu/Marketing/Annual Publications/Commodity Profiles/field crops/Tomato Market Value Chain Profile 2013.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2015.
30. Department of Health. 2002. Regulation 918 of 1999. Regulations governing general hygiene requirements for food premises and the transport of food, promulgated under the National Health Act (Act 61 of 2003) previously the Health Act of 1977. Available at: http://www.ehrn.co.za/download/reg-food.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2015.
31. Department of Health. 2004. National Health Act, Act No. 61of 2003. Government Gazette No. 26595. Available at: http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/a61-03.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2015.
32. Department of Water and Sanitation. 1996. South African water quality guidelines, vol. 4. Agricultural water use: irrigation. Available at: http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/wq-guide/Pol-saWQguideFRESH-vol4-Irrigation.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2015.
33. Doyle, M., and M. Erickson. 2008. Summer meeting 2007-The problems with fresh produce: An overview. J. Appl. Microbiol. 105:317-330.
34. Doyle, M. P., and M. C. Erickson. 2012. Opportunities for mitigating pathogen contamination during on-farm food production. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 152:54-74.
35. du Plessis, E. M., F. Duvenage, and L. Korsten. 2015. Determining the potential link between irrigation water quality and the microbiological quality of onions by phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Escherichia coli isolates. J. Food Prot. 78:643-651.
36. Duvenage, S. Unpublished data.
37. Erasmus, N. 2014. Pollution in Sand River adversely affects area. Available at: http://reviewonline.co.za/38560/pollution-in-sand-riveradversely-Affects-Area/. Accessed 25 June 2015.
38. Estepa, V., B. Rojo-Bezares, C. Torres, and Y. Sáenz. 2015. Genetic lineages and antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas spp. isolates recovered from food samples. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 12:486-491.
39. European Food Safety Authority. 2012. E. Coli: rapid response in a crisis. Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/120711. Accessed 25 June 2015.
40. Falomir, M., D. Gozalbo, and H. Rico. 2010. Coliform bacteria in fresh vegetables: from cultivated lands to consumers, p. 1175-1181. In A. Mendez-Vilas (ed.), Current research, technology and education topics in applied microbiology and microbial biotechnology, vol. 2. Microbiology book series 2. Formatex Research Center, Badajoz, Spain.
41. Fonseca, J., S. Fallon, C. Sanchez, and K. Nolte. 2011. Escherichia coli survival in lettuce fields following its introduction through different irrigation systems. J. Appl. Microbiol. 110:893-902.
42. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2014. FAOSTAT. South African tomato production between 1992 and 2012. Available at: http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx. Accessed 30 March 2015.
43. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization. 2008. Microbiological hazards in fresh fruits and vegetables. Meeting report. Microbiological risk assessment series. Available at: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/MRA-FruitVeges.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2015.
44. Food Safety News. 2014. Big red tomato packers issues recall over Salmonella. Available at: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2014/02/big-red-Tomato-packers-issues-recall-over-salmonella/#.VkPil7-Jdg4. Accessed 6 October 2015.
45. Greene, S., E. Daly, E. Talbot, L. Demma, S. Holzbauer, N. Patel, T. Hill, M. Walderhaug, R. Hoekstra, and M. Lynch. 2008. Recurrent multistate outbreak of Salmonella Newport associated with tomatoes from contaminated fields, 2005. Epidemiol. Infect. 136:157-165.
46. Hamner, S., S. C. Broadaway, V. B. Mishra, A. Tripathi, R. K. Mishra, E. Pulcini, B. H. Pyle, and T. E. Ford. 2007. Isolation of potentially pathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 from the Ganges River. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:2369-2372.
47. Hanning, I. B., J. Nutt, and S. C. Ricke. 2009. Salmonellosis outbreaks in the United States due to fresh produce: sources and potential intervention measures. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 6:635-648.
48. Hanski, I., L. von Hertzen, N. Fyhrquist, K. Koskinen, K. Torppa, T. Laatikainen, P. Karisola, P. Auvinen, L. Paulin, M. J. Mäkelä, E. Vartiainen, T. U. Kosunen, H. Alenius, and T. Haahtela. 2012. Environmental biodiversity, human microbiota, and allergy are interrelated. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109:8334-8339.
49. Hedberg, C., F. Angulo, K. White, C. Langkop, W. Schell, M. Stobierski, A. Schuchat, J. Besser, S. Dietrich, and L. Helsel. 1999. Outbreaks of salmonellosis associated with eating uncooked tomatoes: implications for public health. Epidemiol. Infect. 122:385-393.
50. Hoffmann, S., B. Maculloch, and M. Batz. 2015. Economic burden of major foodborne illnesses acquired in the United States. EIB-140. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/1837791/eib140.pdf. Accessed 6 October 2015.
51. Holden, N., L. Pritchard, and I. Toth. 2008. Colonization outwith the colon: plants as an alternative environmental reservoir for human pathogenic enterobacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 33:689-703.
52. Huovinen, E., L. Sihvonen, M. Virtanen, K. Haukka, A. Siitonen, and M. Kuusi. 2010. Symptoms and sources of Yersinia enterocolitica-infection: A case-control study. BMC Infect. Dis. 10:122. (E-pub.)
53. International Organization for Standardization. 2005. Food safety management. ISO 22000. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
54. International Organization for Standardization. 2012. Water quality-enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria. Part 2. Most probable number method. ISO 9308-2:2012. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
55. Izumi, H., M. Nagano, and Y. Ozaki. 2004. Microbial evaluation of fresh marketed vegetables. Mem. School Biol. Orient. Sci. Technol. KinKi Univ. 13:15-22.
56. Jackson, S., R. Goodbrand, R. Johnson, V. Odorico, D. Alves, K. Rahn, J. Wilson, M. Welch, and R. Khakhria. 1998. Escherichia coli O157:H7 diarrhoea associated with well water and infected cattle on an Ontario farm. Epidemiol. Infect. 120:17-20.
57. Jacobsen, C. S., and T. B. Bech. 2012. Soil survival of Salmonella and transfer to freshwater and fresh produce. Food Res. Int. 45:557-566.
58. Julian, T. R., M. A. Islam, A. J. Pickering, S. Roy, E. R. Fuhrmeister, A. Ercumen, A. Harris, J. Bishai, and K. J. Schwab. 2015. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Escherichia coli isolates from feces, hands, and soils in rural Bangladesh via the Colilert Quanti-Tray system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 81:1735-1743.
59. Kirezieva, K., J. Nanyunja, L. Jacxsens, J. G. A. J. van der Vorst, M. Uyttendaele, and P. A. Luning. 2013. Context factors affecting design and operation of food safety management systems in the fresh produce chain. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 32:108-127.
60. Kobayashi, J. 2006. Enhanced susceptibility to foodborne infections and disease due to underlying illnesses and pregnancy, p. 233-247. In M. Potter (ed.), Food consumption and disease risk. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge.
61. Labadarios, D., N. Steyn, E. Maunder, U. MacIntryre, G. Gericke, R. Swart, J. Huskisson, A. Dannhauser, H. Vorster, and A. Nesmvuni. 2005. The national food consumption survey (NFCS): South Africa, 1999. Public Health Nutr. 8:533-543.
62. Leclerc, H., D. A. A. Mossel, S. C. Edberg, and C. B. Struijk, 2001. Advances in the bacteriology of the coliform group: Their suitability as markers of microbial water safety. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 55:201-234.
63. Leifert, C., K. Ball, N. Volakakis, and J. Cooper. 2008. Control of enteric pathogens in ready-To-eat vegetable crops in organic and low input production systems: A HACCP-based approach. J. Appl. Microbiol. 105:931-950.
64. Little, C., D. Roberts, E. Youngs, and J. De Louvois. 1999. Microbiological quality of retail imported unprepared whole lettuces: A PHLS Food Working Group study. J. Food Prot. 62:325-328.
65. Lopez-Galvez, F., A. Allende, F. Pedrero-Salcedo, J. J. Alarcon, and M. I. Gil. 2014. Safety assessment of greenhouse hydroponic tomatoes irrigated with reclaimed and surface water. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 191:97-102.
66. Lynch, M. F., R. V. Tauxe, and C. W. Hedberg. 2009. The growing burden of foodborne outbreaks due to contaminated fresh produce: risks and opportunities. Epidemiol. Infect. 137:307-315.
67. MacDonald, E., B. T. Heier, K. Nygard, T. Stalheim, K. S. Cudjoe, T. Skjerdal, A. L. Wester, B.-A. Lindstedt, T.-L. Stavnes, and L. Vold. 2012. Yersinia enterocolitica outbreak associated with ready-To-eat salad mix, Norway, 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18:1496-1499.
68. Markland, S. 2012. A comparison of Escherichia coli persistence on basil plants and soil using drip and overhead irrigation. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the IAFP, Providence, RI, 22 to 25 July 2012.
69. Marquez-Santacruz, H., R. Hernandez-Leon, M. Orozco-Mosqueda, I. Velazquez-Sepulveda, and G. Santoyo. 2010. Diversity of bacterial endophytes in roots of Mexican husk tomato plants (Physalis ixocarpa) and their detection in the rhizosphere. Gen. Mol. Res. 9:2372-2380.
70. Matlala, M. 2012. Row over cholera claim. Available at: http://savethewater.org/2012/11/13/row-cholera-claim/. Accessed 25 June 2015.
71. Moloto, M. 2012. Cholera outbreaks fears in Polokwane. Available at: http://www.iol.co.za/the-star/cholera-outbreak-fears-in-polokwane-1.1419341#.VkTKl7-Jdg4. Accessed 25 June 2015.
72. Mushi, D., D. Byamukama, A. K. Kivaisi, R. L. Mach, and A. H. Farnleitner. 2010. Sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria are indicators of very recent human faecal pollution in streams and groundwater habitats in urban tropical lowlands. J. Water Health 8:466-478.
73. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 1999. Microbiological safety evaluations and recommendations on fresh produce. Food Control 10:117-143.
74. Niehaus, A. J., T. Apalata, Y. M. Coovadia, A. M. Smith, and P. Moodley. 2011. An outbreak of foodborne salmonellosis in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 8:693-697.
75. Noble, R. T., J. F. Griffith, A. D. Blackwood, J. A. Fuhrman, J. B. Gregory, X. Hernandez, X. Liang, A. A. Bera, and K. Schiff. 2006. Multitiered approach using quantitative PCR to track sources of fecal pollution affecting Santa Monica Bay, California. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:1604-1612.
76. Nugent, S. L., F. Meng, G. B. Martin, and C. Altier. 2015. Acquisition of iron is required for growth of Salmonella spp. in tomato fruit. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 81:3663-3670.
77. Oberholster, P. J., and P. J. Ashton. 2008. State of the Nation report: An overview of the current status of water quality and eutrophication in South African rivers and reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria.
78. Olaimat, A. N., and R. A. Holley. 2012. Factors influencing the microbial safety of fresh produce: A review. Food Microbiol. 32:1-19.
79. Ottesen, A. R., A. G. Peña, J. R. White, J. B. Pettengill, C. Li, S. Allard, S. Rideout, M. Allard, T. Hill, P. Evans, E. Strain, S. Musser, R. Knight, and E. Brown. 2013. Baseline survey of the anatomical microbial ecology of an important food plant: Solanum lycopersicum (tomato). BMC Microbiol. 13:114. (E-pub.)
80. Pagadala, S., S. C. Marine, S. A. Micallef, F. Wang, D. M. Pahl, M. V. Melendez, W. L. Kline, R. A. Oni, C. S. Walsh, and K. L. Everts. 2015. Assessment of region, farming system, irrigation source and sampling time as food safety risk factors for tomatoes. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 196:98-108.
81. Pollack, S. L. 2001. Consumer demand for fruit and vegetables: The US example, p. 49-54. In A. Regmi (ed.), Changing structure of global food consumption and trade. Diane Publishing Co., Washington, DC.
82. Sanderson, W. T., M. J. Hein, L. Taylor, B. D. Curwin, G. M. Kinnes, T. A. Seitz, T. Popovic, H. T. Holmes, M. E. Kellum, and S. K. McAllister. 2002. Surface sampling methods for Bacillus anthracis spore contamination. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:1145-1151.
83. Sarkar, S., and S. Chaudhuri. 2015. New report of additional enterobacterial species causing wilt in West Bengal, India. Can. J. Microbiol. 61:477-486.
84. Schraft, H., and L. Watterworth. 2005. Enumeration of heterotrophs, fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli in water: comparison of 3Me Petrifilme plates with standard plating procedures. J. Microbiol. Methods 60:335-342.
85. Shenge, K. C., C. M. Whong, L. L. Yakubu, R. A. Omolehin, J. M. Erbaugh, S. A. Miller, and J. T. LeJeune. 2015. Contamination of tomatoes with coliforms and Escherichia coli on farms and in markets of northwest Nigeria. J. Food Prot. 78:57-64.
86. Shi, X., Z. Wu, A. Namvar, M. Kostrzynska, K. Dunfield, and K. Warriner. 2009. Microbial population profiles of the microflora associated with pre-And postharvest tomatoes contaminated with Salmonella Typhimurium or Salmonella Montevideo. J. Appl. Microbiol. 107:329-338.
87. Sivapalasingam, S., C. Friedman, L. Cohen, and R. Tauxe. 2004. Fresh produce: A growing cause of outbreaks of foodborne illness in the United States, 1973 through 1997. J. Food Prot. 61:2342-2353.
88. South African Bureau of Standards. 2004. Efficacy of cleaning plant, equipment and utensils: swab technique. SABS SM 763. South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.
89. Standing, T.-A., E. du Plessis, S. Duvenage, and L. Korsten. 2013. Internalisation potential of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica subsp. Enterica serovar Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in lettuce seedlings and mature plants. J. Water Health 11:210-223.
90. Takahashi, H., H. Konuma, and Y. Hara-Kudo. 2006. Development of a quantitative real-Time PCR method to enumerate total bacterial counts in ready-To-eat fruits and vegetables. J. Food Prot. 69:2504-2508.
91. Warriner, K., A. Huber, A. Namvar, W. Fan, and K. Dunfield. 2009. Recent advances in the microbial safety of fresh fruits and vegetables. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 57:155-208.
92. Warriner, K., and A. Namvar. 2010. The tricks learnt by human enteric pathogens from phytopathogens to persist within the plant environment. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 21:131-136.
93. Weagant, S. D., and P. Feng. 2007. Yersinia enterocolitica, chap. 8. In Bacteriological analytical manual. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
94. Weisburg, W. G., S. M. Barns, D. A. Pelletier, and D. J. Lane. 1991. 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study. J. Bacteriol. 173:697-703.
95. Whipps, J. M., P. Hand, D. A. C. Pink, and G. D. Bending. 2008. Human pathogens and the phyllosphere. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 64:183-221.
96. World Health Organization. 2008. Foodborne disease outbreaks: guidelines for investigation and control. World Health Organization, Geneva.
97. Yoh, M., J. Matsuyama, M. Ohnishi, K. Takagi, H. Miyagi, K. Mori, K.-S. Park, T. Ono, and T. Honda. 2005. Importance of Providencia species as a major cause of travellers diarrhoea. J. Med. Microbiol. 54:1077-1082.
98. Zhou, B., Y. Luo, X. Nou, Y. Yang, Y. Wu, and Q. Wang. 2014. Effects of postharvest handling conditions on internalization and growth of Salmonella enterica in tomatoes. J. Food Prot. 77:365-370.
99. Zhuang, R., L. Beuchat, and F. Angulo, 1995. Fate of Salmonella Montevideo on and in raw tomatoes as affected by temperature and treatment with chlorine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2127-2131.